Chapter 6: The Greek Language

The Greek people may be biblically traced to Javan, the son of Japheth. Their language heralds from the eastern parts of India to the western shores of Europe. We find some of the greatest works of philosophy, history, architecture, mathematical science, and sculpture given to the world from this people and in their tongue. The language has changed over time like so many languages of the world through migration and military conquest. The common form, called Hellenistic or Macedonian, blended the previous forms to become the common tongue used in the Christian era.



Athens, Antioch, and Alexandria became the centers for education and literacy. The famous Alexandrian Library founded by Ptolemy Soter is still known throughout the world. The city of Alexandria contained a large number of Jews likely due to the relaxed political climate at the time. The Jews adopted the Greek language and soon came to be called Hellenists. It is common to call the Greek of the NT Hellenistic Greek for this reason. This influence of the Jews may have brought into the language some Hebraisms giving to the NT unique qualities not known before. The NT manuscripts, the Septuagint, and the apocryphal books are all given in Hellenistic Greek. The writings of Philo, Josephus, and the Apostolic Fathers also serve as examples of this form of Greek and are useful in learning its peculiarities.

The characteristics of Hellenistic Greek have been arranged into eight categories by Planck. He notes that biblical Greek bears the peculiarity of containing foreign words such as Aramaic and Latin. It is also noted that the New Testament writers did not follow a standard writing system. They each had their own manner of spelling words for example. Some of these differences may be attributed to a copyist and not necessarily the author. Compared to other Greek forms, the NT writers used peculiar flexion of nouns and verbs. Moreover, another peculiarity of the NT writers is nouns given in a non-uniform manner. Nouns are sometimes given in the masculine and neuter forms whereas in the Septuagint they would be given consistently and uniformly.

There is also to be found in the NT Greek text nouns that are given entirely new forms or are new words themselves. An addition, new meaning and significance was given to known Greek words. Careful and patient study must be given in order to trace any changes in such meanings. An example is the word euagglion. In classical times the word carried the meaning of the reward for a good message. Later, it came to be used of sacrifice for a good message, and then still later came to mean the good message, or news, itself. Therefore, the meaning in the NT is the good news, or Gospel, of Jesus Christ.

It is apparent that Hellenistic Greek adopted some Hebraisms. Perfect Hebraisms are seen in words, phrases, and contractions unique to Hebrew or Aramean appear to be transferred directly into the Greek language. Imperfect Hebraisms have some measure of probability of being introduced from Hebrew. Words such as hosanna are direct transfers from Aramaic to Greek, and the word translated ‘bowels’ in the AV draws the concept from the Hebrew. Certain expressions and grammatical constructions can also be traced as particularly Hebrew. This can be seen by noticing the verb following the preposition where in Classical Greek verbs stand alone in accusative or dative cases without a preposition.

Such Hebraist constructions and styles would be natural to the NT writers who wrote under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit in expounding the Hebrew Scriptures which they were well acquainted with. The same Spirit that moved the prophets of old then breathed-out through the holy Apostles as they made known the power and coming of the Lord Jesus Christ by the Hebrew Scripture in the New Testament. When the Lord dealt primarily in the world through the Hebrew people He spoke to them in their language. But when the fullness of times had come when Jehovah when the middle wall of separation be torn down between Jew and Gentile, He set His revelation in the language of the Greeks.

Chapter 5: The Chaldee Language

The Chaldee language, sometimes called Aramaic or Syriac, is found in a few portions of the OT Scriptures. We find this dialect in Jeremiah, Daniel, and Ezra. The Chaldean tongue was in common use during the time of the Babylonian captivity of the Jews. It was during this time of captivity Hebrew gradually ceased to be spoken as the common tongue and the Jews came to adopt the Chaldean as their own. This language would have been learned by such men as Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah who were chosen by Nebuchadnezzar to be taught “the tongue of the Chaldeans.” Daniel 1:4.

It may be inquired as to why God chose to have certain portions of the OT Scriptures put into the language of the Babylonians. The answer begins to be apparent as we look at the instances of Aramaic in the Bible. In Daniel 2:4 we read, “Then spake the Chaldeans to the king in Syriack, O King, live forever…” The Aramaic begins at the words “O King, live forever..” and follows through the discourse. Daniel stood as a prophet in the courts of the king of Babylon to prophesy both of his own people and that of the Babylonians and of many world empires in the future. It was fitting that God chose to put this prophecy into the language of the people with whom it had to do. Furthermore, the very fact that we find this ancient tongue in the midst of the Hebrew Scriptures serves as monumental evidence of the validity of the facts being presented in the text.

Ezra is also a book of the Bible where we find the Aramaic language. Ezra lived about one hundred years after Daniel and was an exile during the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus in 457 B. C. Ezra was a highly educated priest and scribe and it is believed that he is responsible for the collection of the sacred texts of the Hebrews into a canon essentially the same as possessed today in the Old Testament. In Nehemiah 8:1 it is Ezra that brought the “…the book of the Law of Moses” and read it to the people that they might understand it. In Ezra 4:7 we read that a letter written by Bishlam, Mithredath, Tabeel, and their companions “…was written in the Syrian tongue, and interpreted in the Syrian tongue.” Ezra gives 4:8 through 6:18 in Aramaic and like Daniel, serves as a testament to the authenticity of the life of Ezra and God’s wisdom in speaking to a nation in their language.

In many ways the language is similar to Hebrew being a Semitic language but as in all languages it contains its own peculiarities. Babylonian-Aramaic became the language of the Hebrews while they were in exile and remained their common tongue through the New Testament period. The use of Aramaic in the New Testament is evident by many words such as Raca, Gogotha, Rabboni, Abba, and Maranatha to name a few. As the fulfillment of the Old Covenant in Christ steadfastly approached we witness the Providence of God transitioning His people to the language in which He chose to speak to the world. From the beginning God spoke to the nation of Israel by the prophets in their Hebrew tongue. As prophecy began to speak to the nations around them the language of the sacred text spoke to them that they may understand. And as the fullness of times approached for the Gospel to be preached to all nations beginning in Jerusalem, so too did the language of Scripture change in order to speak to the world in the Greek language.

What Does the Bible Teach About Repentance?

The verb metanoeo is translated "repent" in the KJV 34 times. The word 'repentance" is the Greek metanoia is found 24 times in the KJV.

Matthew 3:2
And saying, Repent ye: for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.

Matthew 4:17
From that time Jesus began to preach, and to say, Repent: for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.

Matthew 9:13
But go ye and learn what that meaneth, I will have mercy, and not sacrifice: for I am not come to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance.

Matthew 11:20
Then began he to upbraid the cities wherein most of his mighty works were done, because they repented not:

Mark 1:15
And saying, The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand: repent ye, and believe the gospel.

Mark 6:12
And they went out, and preached that men should repent.

Luke 3:8
Bring forth therefore fruits worthy of repentance, and begin not to say within yourselves, We have Abraham to our father: for I say unto you, That God is able of these stones to raise up children unto Abraham.

Luke 13:3
I tell you, Nay: but, except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish.

Luke 15:7
I say unto you, that likewise joy shall be in heaven over one sinner that repenteth, more than over ninety and nine just persons, which need no repentance.

Luke 24:47
And that repentance and remission of sins should be preached in his name among all nations, beginning at Jerusalem.

Acts 2:38
Then Peter said unto them, Repent, and be baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus Christ for the remission of sins, and ye shall receive the gift of the Holy Ghost.

Acts 3:19
Repent ye therefore, and be converted, that your sins may be blotted out, when the times of refreshing shall come from the presence of the Lord.

Acts 5:31
Him hath God exalted with his right hand to be a Prince and a Saviour, for to give repentance to Israel, and forgiveness of sins.

Acts 11:18
When they heard these things, they held their peace, and glorified God, saying, Then hath God also to the Gentiles granted repentance unto life.

Acts 17:30
And the times of this ignorance God winked at; but now commandeth all men every where to repent:

Acts 20:21
Testifying both to the Jews, and also to the Greeks, repentance toward God, and faith toward our Lord Jesus Christ.

Acts 26:20
But shewed first unto them of Damascus, and at Jerusalem, and throughout all the coasts of Judaea, and then to the Gentiles, that they should repent and turn to God, and do works meet for repentance.

Romans 2:4
Or despisest thou the riches of his goodness and forbearance and longsuffering; not knowing that the goodness of God leadeth thee to repentance?

2 Corinthians 7:10
For godly sorrow worketh repentance to salvation not to be repented of: but the sorrow of the world worketh death.

2 Timothy 2:25
In meekness instructing those that oppose themselves; if God peradventure will give them repentance to the acknowledging of the truth;

Hebrews 6:1
Therefore leaving the principles of the doctrine of Christ, let us go on unto perfection; not laying again the foundation of repentance from dead works, and of faith toward God,

2 Peter 3:9
The Lord is not slack concerning his promise, as some men count slackness; but is longsuffering to us-ward, not willing that any should perish, but that all should come to repentance.

Revelation 3:19
As many as I love, I rebuke and chasten: be zealous therefore, and repent.

Revelation 9:20
And the rest of the men which were not killed by these plagues yet repented not of the works of their hands, that they should not worship devils, and idols of gold, and silver, and brass, and stone, and of wood: which neither can see, nor hear, nor walk:

Revelation 9:21
Neither repented they of their murders, nor of their sorceries, nor of their fornication, nor of their thefts.

Observations:
The message of the Gospel is a message of repentance from dead works (sins) and faith toward God.

Those who did not repent of their evil deeds were not saved.

Repentance is granted by God.

Repentance to life (eternal life) is offered in the Gospel to both Jews and Gentiles.

God commands mankind to repent.

Unrepentance at the preaching of the Gospel is rebuked and condemned by the Lord.

Mankind is accountable to God to repent.

Good fruit (action) accompanies true repentance.

Repentance and faith were preached by Christ Jesus and His apostles.

Chapter 4: The Hebrew Language

The Hebrew language most likely derived its name from Eber, a descendent of Shem. The Hebrew language is wholly different from Indo-European dialects. Semitic language reads from right to left and in book form from the end to the beginning. For a person whose native language is English, coming to the Hebrew language is a challenging experience. Yet it is the language that God chose to reveal himself through prophets of old. Its features and characteristics are wonderfully suited to the revelation of God to be preserved from the time of its inscription until the end of the age.

There are twenty-two letters in the Hebrew alphabet which can be dated as early as 900 B.C. The names of the letters resemble the objects they represent, similar to the hieroglyphics of the ancient Egyptian language. The alphabet contains four gutturals that are pronounced as a sound from the back of the throat. Written Hebrew did not contain vowel sounds, but rather consonants, until the Masoretic system was introduced in the 7th century A.D. by Jewish scholars. When compared to other Semitic languages such as Arabic or Syriac it is evident that the vowel system developed by the Masoretes is correct. Several striking features of the Hebrew language are apparent. The triliteral natures of its verbs, as with all Semitic tongues, contain a sequence of three consonants. The conjugation of verbs in Hebrew is also an interesting feature. By varying the vowels, doubling the middle letter, or by adding letters or symbols the conjugations may be found. Also unique is the ambiguity surrounding the tense, if one exists at all. Grammarians have noted that the idea of time such as past, present or future is not inherent in the form of a Hebrew verb. The Hebrew is more concerned with action than with time. The tense of a verb must be ascertained by context as the verb gives us more of the :mood” of the action than its tense. This is quit fitting for the Divine revelation which speaks of future action as though it is already accomplished. What Almighty God has decreed as future may assuredly be stated as completed.

The Indo-European languages are descriptive, logical, and sequential. To the Hebrew mind and language ideas and events are pregnant with emotions, ideals, and experience. The past may be spoken of as future because the author is reflecting on the past in the present idealizing of a future utopia. Concerning Ishmael, God declares to Abraham that He has blessed him and made him fruitful, as though already occurring, when it had not yet to come to pass. Past action may have in view the continuous action of the verb. And the future action may be conceived as already accomplished.

Hebrew nouns are given in either a masculine or feminine gender. It is not necessary that the noun be a person to carry the inflexion. Rather, it appears that whether objects of nature or other non-living things possess qualities that may be considered masculine or feminine carry the inflexion. Mountains, for example, connote strength and would be given in the masculine. Words for cites or towns would be rendered in the feminine perhaps because they were thought of as mothers or daughters of those who lived in them. This feature of the Hebrew language further illustrates the vivid mind of the Hebrew author. Hebrew is a wholly expressive language. Its letters, nouns, and verbs serve to illustrate the visible and invisible world.

The use of plural in Indo-European tongues serves to indicate number or amount, but the Hebrew seeks to convey fullness or immenseness. The tree of life mentioned in Genesis 2:9 gives the word ‘life’ in the plural. The meaning is not that the tree contained many lives, but rather that it is the fullness or completeness of life. Coupled with this vivid nature of the language is its surprising simplicity. Unlike the English language where compound sentences abound, the Hebrew rarely knows of more than two or three sentences that run together. In very simplistic and highly expressive words this language speaks to us. As a result, we find very few adjectives in Hebrew. Such descriptive terms exist in the nouns themselves and to add expressiveness the nouns are multiplied.

Turning to the styles of speech in the Hebrew we discover poetical parallelisms, anthropomorphisms, and anthropopathisms. Hebrew poetry is different from that way we think of poetry as being metrical. Its form consists of definable parallelisms which are capable of direct translations into almost any language. Synonymous Parallelisms abound in the OT Scriptures in Identical, Similar, or Inverted forms. An example of an Identical Parallelism is Proverbs 6:2 which reads, "Thou art snared with the words of thy mouth, thou art taken with the words of thy mouth." The two components of this parallelism are essentially identical to one another with only slightly different wording. Similar Parallelism can be found in Psalm 24:2, "For he hath founded it upon the seas, and established it upon the floods." Here the two phrases are essentially similar but not necessarily identical. Inverted Parallelisms change the order of the thoughts being expressed. We find Psalm 19:1 serves as an example, "The heavens declare the glory of God; and the firmament sheweth his handywork." In the first part of the verse the heavens declare the glory of God and in the second half the same idea is inverted putting the firmament first that shows His handiwork.

Antithetic Parallelism is another form of Hebrew poetry that contrasts two opposing thoughts. This is most commonly found in the Proverbs which often compare the righteous with the wicked. Proverbs 15:2 declares, "The tongue of the wise useth knowledge aright: but the mouth of fools poureth out foolishness." This is an example of a Simple Antithetic parallelism. Compound Antithetic parallelisms may also be found in Scripture as in Isaiah 1:3, "The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master's crib: but Israel doth not know, my people doth not consider." It is compound because the thesis is expressed by two or more sentences followed by the antithesis.

Synthetic Parallelisms are discovered more by form than by idea, thesis or antithesis. The subjects may not answer to each other, but according to Lowth's definition the form does, "…as noun answers to noun, verb to verb, member to member, negative to negative, interrogative to interrogative." Within Synthetic Parallelism we find both Correspondent and Cumulative forms. In the twenty-seventh Psalm verse one we read, "The LORD is my light and my salvation; whom shall I fear? the LORD is the strength of my life; of whom shall I be afraid?" The first part of this verse corresponds to the second although the different ideas are presented. Also within Synthetic Parallelism are passages where a series of sentences or phrases culminate to a final idea. In Psalm 1:1-2 we find an example of this Cumulative form where certain actions are described by several sentences culminating in a climax. There are also a variety of irregular forms also to be found in Hebrew poetry such as listing the lines or verses with each letter of the alphabet in order. These forms of poetry serve to exhibit that the Hebrew mind thought and wrote with great emotion, purpose, and pathos. The fact that the Hebrew Scriptures are divine revelation from God serves to illustrate the personal nature of God in contradistinction from the pagan concepts of deity.

It is important to note that the Hebrew Scriptures contain many anthropomorphisms and anthropopathisms. Anthropomorphism ascribes human characteristics to animals or non-living things while anthropopathism ascribes human emotions. Such stylistic language is used in Scripture to describe Almighty God. By not recognizing such linguistic features in the Hebrew language it is possible to come to a false understanding of God. In Exodus 15:8 God is extolled for parting the sea for the Jews by "...the blast of thy nostrils." This is an example of anthropomorphism. God did not literally exhale air through his nose, nor does God have a physical nose at all. Recognition of these styles of speech can keep the interpreter of Scripture from error and even blasphemy.

For more than a thousand years, from the time of Moses through Samuel, from David to Hezekiah, and from the end of the kingdom of Judah to shortly after the Babylonian exile, the Hebrew language has remained essentially unchanged. As the languages of the world pass through time such significant changes occur that render them altogether different dialects. Yet as we observe the Hebrew tongue through wars, apostasy, and captivity it has remained virtually unchanged and is now preserved in the Holy Scriptures of the Old Testament. It stands as a testimony to the invisible hand of Divine Providence. In all of its beauty, emotion, rhythm, and poetry, it still stands as a living oracle saying to the skeptical world, “They have Moses and the prophets; let them hear them.” Luke 16:29a

Chapter 3: Languages of the Bible

Unless our native language is Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek, possessing some understanding of the original languages of the Bible is necessary to biblical interpretation. This is not to imply that those who posses only a translation of the Holy Scriptures are left without the word of God. But it must not be thought that a translation may sufficiently replace the original tongue. In order to prepare ourselves for an investigation into the sacred tongues of the Bible, we must first orientate ourselves to the origin of language itself and understand how language has changed through the passage of time. Having knowledge of this will help us examine the languages particular to the biblical text.

How did language originate? Several humanistic and materialistic theories have been advanced by the most eminent philologists who rarely agree among themselves. The Bible posits that man is the creation of God and from this we can rightly infer that language was created in man. The theories given in favor of a human origin propose ideas that language sprung from man who was imitating the sounds of things heard or by expressions naturally erupting from sudden emotions or other stimuli. While such theories may account for the change or progression of words in history, they do not give a sufficient explanation for the origin of the complexities of language itself. After the creation of the man and woman in the first chapter of Genesis we find them with the in-tact ability to communicate with God using language.

While linguistics may not be able to explain the origin of language, the study of language and literature, or philology, has given the world much insight into the history and divisions of the world’s tongues. To the untrained it may seem that with so many dialects a common origin might be impossible to discern. Thankfully this is not the case. The languages common to mankind can be grouped into three main families. The Indo-European family would include German, Dutch, Swedish, Danish, Icelandic, Russian, Polish, Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Latin, Greek, Armenian, Persian, Zend, Pali, Prakrit, and other dialects of India. The languages of Northern and Central Europe and Asia can be classified as the Scythian or Turanian family. The dialects of the Laplanders, Finns, Hungarians and Turks would be included in this family.

The third family is the Semitic named so from Shem, one of the son’s of Noah. The languages included in this family are Chaldee, Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopian, Phoenician, and the cuneiform of the Assyrians and Babylonians. From these main families of languages we may trace the various dialects mentioned above. According to philological research, the changes from the parent family to its sub-families occurred as the result of conquest, migration, and changes in customs.

Biblical Hermeneutics. Chapter 2 Summary: The Bible and Other Sacred Books

It is said that a lifelong friend of Patrick Henry told the story of a neighbor who going to see Henry found him holding up a Bible and said, “This book is worth all the books that were ever printed.” Whether the statement can truly be attributed to Henry, its sentiment rings true. A simple perusal of the sacred literature of the most predominate religions of the ancient and modern world make plain the uniqueness of the Bible among bibles. It is in holding up the greater light of Scripture to the lesser lights of the writings of the Egyptians, Persians, Hindus, Chinese, Muslims, and others that it becomes clear that the Bible is truly the Book of books. The differences are so striking that a comparison alone may well persuade the honest inquirer of the Bible’s divine origin. Add to this the immense diversity while being in possession of perfect unity would seem to set the divine seal upon its pages.

The Zend-Avesta of the ancient Iranian Zoroastrian religion has suffered much through the passage of time. Zoroaster himself appears on the pages of history as little more than a mythological figure. The sacred records of the Assyrians in their cuneiform monuments have passed to us large amounts of literature, history, poetry, science and religion. These writings lightly touch on Accad, mentioned in Genesis 10:10, in reference to two races which settled on the plains of the Euphrates and Tigris. The Chaldean creation account is of interest to Bible students as it references a seventh day of rest, as well as the Deluge and the Tower of Babel. Yet a careful study of these cuneiform writings betrays legend and tradition in contradistinction to the clear narratives found in the Bible. We find similar observations in what can be drawn from the Hindu Vedas, the Buddhist canon, or the sacred books of the Chinese.

While each of the sacred books of the nations should be studied in their entirety to gain a full comprehension of their respective worldview and philosophy, the Old and New Testaments held up to them must stands in a class of its own as entirely unique. Unlike the sacred texts of the nations that have scarcely reached beyond the people from which they sprung and some of which lay dormant fit mostly for the scholars interest, the Bible stands as the timeless Book for the nations not returning void to the One who sent it into the world to accomplish all His will.

Wisdom from a mom of six (and one on the way)

My wife may get mad at me for this, but I happened along some things she wrote about raising our kids. I thought it was absolutely wonderful. I pray she keeps writing!

Some things I’ve learned over the years having six kids.

Professionals don’t know everything
The advice they gave me 12 years ago they don’t give now. Why? Because it’s a different person/ or group with different opinions and priorities. So take their advice as good suggestions that may or may not work. You and your baby are unique and so are your needs. What works for your neighbor might be the worst suggestion for you.

Be willing to learn and grow with your baby
Each baby is born with their own personality and from day one you and your baby are getting to know and love each other. This takes time. Babies love Mom and Dad and want to feel close and warm in their arms. Let them indulge when you can. This time is precious and passes quickly.

My little one is five months old and already she wants to be playing and mobile, not snuggled as much as before. Being a parent is a learning time with many changes. Every time you think you have it down their needs change with their age and so you will need to learn to meet their new needs.

Babies are not robots
Your baby doesn’t know what the doctor said about how much to sleep and eat. They have their own appetite and need for sleep. One baby may love to sleep while another doesn’t need as much. So be flexible with them. Allow them to discover their world as you learn about them. When I’ve tried to get a baby to bend to my schedule and what I want, there has only been stress and frustration.

Babies change so don’t worry too much about how the times they are sleeping doesn’t work for when you wanted to clean house or answer emails. Their needs will change and the time that they want to play and sleep will be different. The older they get the easier it is to get some kind of schedule so that you can structure your day. When I am not happy with how my days are going I remind myself that this time will pass quickly and my sweet baby will grow and change.

You are teaching your baby good or bad habits
Every day you are training your little one. If you rock baby to sleep that is what they will grow a to expect, so if your day changes, and you need baby to lie down and sleep alone, it will take time to learn this new way of doing things.

The works of our Lord from the Gospel John

Written by my son, 10 years old..

The book of John is filled with miracles that Lord Jesus Christ did. Although I can’t tell you all of his works, no man could write such a large tale for it is written in John 21:25, and so there are also many other thing that Jesus did, the which, if they should be written everyone, even the world can’t contain the books that should be written. Amen. So let me tell you of some the great works our Almighty God.

One time Jesus went to a wedding but the church was out of wine so Mary told the servants to do whatever Jesus asked and so Jesus saw some water pots and told the servants to fill them with water and give it to the wedding governor, but when the governor tasted the water it was made of wine.

Another day there was a man lying next to a pool of water who couldn’t walk, and was waiting for it to move, for it was said, that an angel would come down from heaven and stir it, and whoever was first in the water would be healed from any sickness. But instead of an angel stirring up water, Jesus came along and saw the man who couldn’t walk and immediately He knew what was the problem and said "take up thy bed and walk", and immediately he picked up his bed and walked.

One time Jesus even feed 5,000 people with 5 loafs of bread and 2 small fishes. In fact Jesus was so merciful that He suffered the wrath of the Romans laid his life down and was crucified for all sinners. Jesus was able to do all this because of the will of God, because he was the Lamb of God the son of the almighty god, because he was, and still is God.

Book Summary Report: An Introduction to Theological Research.

An Introduction To Theological Research: A Guide for College and Seminary Students by Cyril J. Barber and Robert M. Krauss

The book, An Introduction to Theological Research, begins by rhetorically asking the reader if there exists a need for a book that teaches a researcher how to do research. The simple answer to this question is yes. The explosion of information in our era and the accessibility of much of this information via the internet have created the need for guidance. The academic researcher and the earnest Christian seeking to grow in their theological knowledge may indeed navigate through this sea of information safely and successfully. The general aim of the book is to help students do better quality research with a greater amount of personal fulfillment. These objectives have the goals of reducing the time a student might normally spend looking for information, finding information that will significantly improve the quality of the student’s research, and equipping the student to be able to do research independent of a guide. These goals may be achieved by beginning first with general reference works and then moving on to specific resources that increase the student’s knowledge in a particular area.

General reference works are treated in three parts in the book and include encyclopedias of religion and the Bible, Bible dictionaries, atlases and concordances, biblical archeological reference works, and theological reference works. Also included in general reference works are resources that cover areas such as education, history and philosophy, missions, philosophy, ethics, sociology and psychology. By beginning with general reference works the book contends that a student will be able to “work smarter, not just harder” thus enhancing both their enjoyment of research and, for the academic, their grades.

To the average person, the word ‘encyclopedia’ conjures up the multi-volume publications of Encyclopedia Britannica or Encyclopedia Americana. For the Bible student and theological researcher, these resources will not be sufficient. Encyclopedias can enrich a student’s study to give a broad range of a particular topic or discover who the major contributors are, both past and present, and who contributed to the body of knowledge. Not every encyclopedia will represent a high view of Scripture. It is important then for the student to critically examine each work as to who the editor is, why the work was written, and the scope of the work. While in the fields of science, theories and even axioms change, God’s truth is timeless and therefore older works should not be ignored.

In the category of religion one has to tread carefully to mine good information from them. Of note among several mentioned in the book is the Cylopedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature edited by James M’Clintock and James Strong. The articles in this encyclopedia are long and cover all of Christianity and many non-Christian religions. It is useful both topically and biographically. Topics such as Pelagianism and scholasticism are covered, and biographies of Calvin and Erasmus are examples of what may be found within its volumes. This set was updated with two additional volumes from the original ten running about 1000 pages each and are included in the 1968-1970 reprint.

While the aforementioned encyclopedia falls under the category of religion, there are encyclopedias and dictionaries that narrow our focus to biblical studies. Of note among them is New Unger’s Bible Dictionary. Its value lies in its currency, consistency, and archeological accuracy. This one-volume work is decidedly conservative no doubt due to Unger who was a professor of Dallas Theological Seminary for 19 years and a renowned biblical archeologist. It is important for the student of the Bible to think critically regardless of the encyclopedia or dictionary that is taken in hand for research. We should determine the theological perspective of each writer, whether the work was written from a biblical, theological, historical, or philosophical perspective and the sources the writers drew from for their information.

Also under the category of general reference works are theology and biblical archeology. Biblical archeology adds interest, validity, and accuracy to what is taught in the Bible. Theological reference works can be divided into two categories: biblical theology and systematic theology. Biblical theology aims at advancing the understanding of redemptive history as it progresses through time. It is exegetical and historical in nature. A narrower application of biblical theology is the study of a particular person in the Bible and derives a “theology” of that individual’s view. The reader may be familiar with the phrases “Pauline Theology” or “Johannine Theology” which are examples of biblical theology. Systematic theology is concerned with the history of ideas. Systematic theology approaches the Bible thematically and tends toward a more philosophical approach. The roots of such an approach are found in the ancient civilizations of the word. Caution must be exercised in Systematic Theology by remembering that the discipline of theology in Christianity is primarily the work of exegesis. Nevertheless, examining theological themes such as Christology or the Godhead, and treating each theme exhaustively, is of great value in theological research.

Of note among the nine works cited in the book touching biblical theology is The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology edited by C. Brown. Of particular interest to etymological considerations in this four-volume set is tracing the meaning of a word from the classical period through its usage in the Septuagint (LXX) and then addressing the occurrences in the New Testament. Also worth mentioning is the Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament edited by R.L. Harris, G.L. Archer and B.K. Waltke. The student is able to examine key words with respect to their etymology, cognate usage, and meaning. It is designed for the busy pastor or earnest Christian that has neither the time nor the background for a detailed technical study.

Reference works in the area of Systematic Theology should be evaluated as to whether or not the articles demonstrate knowledge of biblical languages. Works that contain articles from this approach will tend to hold a systematic theology that comes from the text of Scripture rather than reading into the text a preconceived notion. Worth considering is The Expository Dictionary of Bible Words by Lawrence O. Richards. Both Old and New Testaments are thoroughly covered. Words are explained in light of their etymology and practical insights are given to aid the spiritual growth of the believer. The reader should note that the 1985 edition has been updated by Zondervan entitled The New International Encyclopedia of Bible Words in 1999 and this printing is based on the NIV and NASB while the 1985 edition mentioned in the book addresses the Authorized (King James) Version.

The final part of the book covering general reference works deals with the integration of scientific disciplines outside the realm of biblical and theological research. There are eight subjects mentioned in the book: education, history, biography, missions, philosophy, ethics, sociology, and psychology. It is important to note that Scripture should be relied upon to keep the researcher on track in secular areas. For example, it may fall to a student of the Bible to develop an educational program for their church. Knowledge of the history, theory, processes and practices in education may prove helpful. Two works stand out for the biblical researcher. The first is The Encyclopedia of Education edited by L.C. Deighton. This encyclopedia covers public and private approaches to education to stress both the mechanics of learning and what ought to be done. The second is Town’s Sunday School Encyclopedia edited by E.L. Towns. It is 639 pages long and covers recent trends in Sunday school education, effective teaching methods, and proven methods and strategies for various groups.

Often lacking in our diet of biblical knowledge is the integration of history and biography. Having knowledge of certain personalities and events in history can bring a fresh vitality to our studies. With regard to biblical history and personalities in church history two works stand out. The first is A Dictionary of Christian Biography, Literature, Sects, and Doctrines edited by William Smith and Henry Wace in four volumes. An abridgment to this in one volume is available entitled, A Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature to the End of the Sixth Century edited by H. Wace and W.C. Piercy. These works cover from the times of the Apostles to the age of Charlemagne. They cover 19th century theologians and historians as well as ancient church leaders such as Athanasius and Augustine. Through these two works the earnest Christian may also trace the history of apologetics or find doctrinal essays on subjects like the Antichrist or baptism. The Dictionary of American Biography is another resource mentioned in the book that proves its value by containing 14,000 articles of deceased men and women that impacted American culture.

It is the mission of the church to preach the Gospel to all people and make disciples of all the nations. Editors S. Neill, G.H. Anderson and J. Goodwin contributed A Concise Dictionary of the Christian World Mission covering the history of missions from 1492 to present. While this work is dated (“present” is as of 1971) over 200 missiologists contributed to the work from all over the world. The leading resource for Protestant missions is the Mission Handbook 1998-2000 and serves as a more updated resource.

The disciplines of philosophy and ethics are closely related to theological study. The work of a theologian or student of the Bible is mainly the work of an exegete. Philosophy and ethics intersect our exegesis through logical analysis of the Scripture. The Encyclopedia of Philosophy edited by Paul Edwards spans the theories of philosophy in eight volumes covering both Eastern and Western thought including ancient and modern authors. The Encyclopedia of Biblical and Christian Ethics, edited by R. K. Harrison may be useful in demonstrating how ethics is integrated into theology during an era of moral equivocation. The modern era has given rise to the disciplines of sociology and psychology and has emphasized man’s felt needs. The International Encyclopedia of Psychiatry, Psychology, Psycho-Analysis, and Neurology, edited by B. B. Wolman contains articles from over 1,500 authors on the subjects of adolescence, death, depression, emotions, and leadership to name a few. It is clearly a secular encyclopedia but may offer insight to the student and pastor. Of interest for the student of the Bible is Roland de Vaux’s Ancient Israel: Its Life and Institutions, translated by J. McHugh and Israel: Its Life and Culture by Johannes Pedersen. These works deal with the sociological aspects of the people of the Bible. The first four chapters of the book dealt with general reference works. The remaining eleven chapters address specialized reference works.

After gleaning a general overview and scope of a subject the student is then ready to gather additional data through specialized reference works. Through specialized reference works the student will be able to refine a topic through particular Bible study tools. Once this is accomplished, the student will have laid the groundwork for a better understanding of journal articles, bibliographies, and unpublished materials. There are six main Bible study tools helpful for refining a topic: Bible atlases, concordances, Bible commentaries, lexicons, word studies, and online searching.

A Bible atlas will pave the way for the Bible student to locate the places significant to people and events mentioned in Scripture. The Moody Atlas of the Bible by Barry J. Beitzel covers both the Old and New Testaments with colorful maps. Included in this atlas are discussions regarding the history of biblical mapmaking and historical geography. Bible commentaries are very numerous. When one begins to consider what is available it becomes a daunting task to decide which commentary to invest in. Of the thirteen commentary sets mentioned in the book The New International Commentary on the New Testament and its counterpart The New International Commentary on the Old Testament stand out as representative of current conservative scholarship.

Concordances are an indispensable tool for the Bible student. While many use a concordance mainly to find a verse in the Bible, they are useful to discover the meaning of a word, follow a biblical writer’s theology, develop a biblical theology from the Scripture, trace the progression of revelation from the Old to the New Testament, and much more. A careful student of the Scripture will want to avoid abridged concordances which can leave out hundreds of words. It is also advised that one carefully examine a concordance prior to purchase by the reading the preface. Sometimes those called “exhaustive” which would imply coverage of all words is not the case. Two concordances mentioned in the book of note are the Analytical
Concordance to the Bible by Robert Young and James Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible. Young’s concordance is based on the AV providing a reference to each passage of Scripture in which a word appears. It shows the form of the Greek and Hebrew word underlying the translation and includes a lexicon at the end. Strong’s concordance is also based on the AV and has been recently updated under the title New Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance. It differs from Young’s by providing a Hebrew and Chaldee Dictionary with a corresponding number for every word of the Bible. The New Strong’s Expanded Exhaustive Concordance added Vine’s Complete Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words and proves to be of great use to everyone.

Lexicons are important to the student of the Bible because they provide
etymological information and short summaries of the vocabulary of a language. Hebrew and Greek lexicons may take some time to get used to but with persistent use they will yield their benefit. Wilhelm Gesenius’ Hebraisched-deutches Handworterbuch uber die Schriften des Alten Testaments published in two volumes covers the Hebrew language and has stood the test of time. The Greek of the NT which concerns the Bible student is from the Hellenistic period. Bauer’s Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament contains a thorough examining of Greek literature touching the NT words still in use at the time. The proper use of concordances and lexicons build the foundation for what most earnest Christians are eager to do: word studies.

By using the language tools of a concordance and lexicon we can begin word studies which trace the origin and history of a word (etymology), the usage of the word in order to ascertain its meaning, and then verify our work by comparing it to exegetical works. This procedure is the same for both Old and New Testaments. One must not think that doing word studies is exegesis, yet it is fundamentally important for the right interpretation of a text. Liskowsky may be consulted with Gesenius’ work for tracing both the etymology and usage of the Hebrew through his Konkordanz zum hebraischen Alten Testament. Verification can be sought from the Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, edited by R.L. Harris, G.L. Archer and B.K. Waltke. For tracing the etymology of a word in the NT, A Greek Grammar of the New Testament by F. Blass and A. Debrunner should prove useful and Moulton and Geden’s Concordance to the Greek Testament for tracing the usage of a word. Kittel’s Theological Dictionary of the New Testament may be consulted for verification noting that the “theological” aspect is from liberal presuppositions.

The use of online searching aid students to refine their topics and move from the general to the specific more efficiently. It is important to keep in mind when doing theological research that the Library of Congress Subject Headings may not always match a theological topic. The book examples the subject “Christology” which is common in theological study but is found under the subject heading “Jesus Christ” in the Library of Congress Subject Headings so an online search for “Christology” would not have yielded any results when in fact much is available on the subject under the approved heading. Online searching enables the student to find books, dissertations, and articles. Books may be found through Worldcat which allows a search of more than 31,000 libraries simultaneously. The ProQuest Religion database gives access to thousands of journal articles in full text form and ATLA Religion Database can be used to find dissertations. There are valuable resources on the internet through using common search engines and websites that do provide quality information. Bible software can also be a useful tool in the hands of a researcher, such as the Logos Library System, that offer a multitude of books, articles, lexicons, concordances, and dictionaries that may be searched simultaneously.

Indexes, abstracts, bibliographies, and unpublished works further aid the researcher to move from the general to the specific. Having a working knowledge of these tools can greatly reduce the time a student may spend in their research allowing them to spend less time trying to find resources and more time using them. Specialized indexes alphabetize subjects and then list journal articles or essays that relate to the subject. Abstracts follow a similar format, but include a summary of the referenced journal article or essay. The Religion Index One: Periodicals and Religion Index Two: Multi-Author Works may be accessed via the internet through FirstSearch, SilverPlatter, Ovid and EBSCO. The Religious and Theological Abstracts provide for searching under four divisions: Biblical, Theological, Historical, and Practical. Related disciplines such as administration, counseling, education, history, marriage and family, philosophy and the humanities may be searched through similar indexes and abstracts.

Searching bibliographies should not be overlooked. Indexes and abstracts limit the material to be found to recent history while searching bibliographic indexes provide for finding information that dates beyond the scope of online searching. Charles Haddon Spurgeon’s Commenting and Commentaries, for example, contains 1437 mini-reviews of commentaries and books reviewed by Spurgeon. Special bibliographies covering the Bible, Church History, Missions, and Pastoral theology should not be overlooked by the researcher. Finally, unpublished materials should not go unchecked when conducting theological research. Unpublished materials include papers read at theological society meetings or other private circulations that present the scholarly works of others. Such research may have a bearing on the topic under consideration.

The book concludes with a recap of their process to aid students to conduct better quality and more fulfilling research under their theme: from the general to the specific. The process followed involves beginning with general reference works and then narrowing one’s topic through books, periodical articles, bibliographic sources, and unpublished materials. And this, they claim, will put the student one track so that “…there is nothing you should not be able to find.”

Excellent book found, excellent lesson learned

Having read "An Introduction to Theological Research" by Cyril Barber and Robert Krauss, I found a tremendous book referenced there. It was given as an example of how a word study could/should be done. Cyril Barber wrote the forward to the book after searching for it for eight years. It was published in 1977 by Kregel entitled, "The Meaning and Use of Baptizein" by T.J. Conant.

Barber heard of this book in a sermon preached by the late W.A. Criswell who referenced it as a tremendous gem in treating the subject of the meaning of the word "baptism." What took Barber 8 years to find can be found in a few minutes on Amazon or Abebooks. (There is an 1861 copy out there right now (only one) for $75 bucks which is very tempting..) You should be able to pick up a copy for a few dollars plus shipping off Amazon. I opted for the Kregel copy because it is a hardback.

So what is the value in this book? First, it gives the reader a look at what doing a real word study is. Folks, this is a study on one word, baptism (baptizein), and the book is 192 pages long. Doing word studies (as I am learning) involves much more than reading a lexical aid or Bible dictionary. While those tools are very helpful, they do not always trace the history of the word in non-Christian sources, the church fathers, and in the Bible.

I had some time to skim the book and read a few selections from it so far. I am going to have to force myself to shelve this book for later use due to seminary studies, but let me share a nugget or two. This book will not disappoint either the scholar or serious Bible student. However, it will prove itself a sufficient sleeping aid to our fast-food, lazy, mindless entertainment, don't-make-me-think-too-hard crowd. If you really want to think through this subject rather than have someone else do the thinking for you, don't buy this book.

The book covers the use of the word baptizein in ancient Greek literature citing page after page of references and quotes the Greek juxtaposition to the translation. You don't have to know Greek to understand this book, but it is there should one want to see that as well. The Septuagint is addressed (Greek translation of the OT). Here is a excerpt as a summary of how thorough Conant is:

These examples (of the word meaning 'to put under' 'submerge' et.) are drawn from writers in almost every department of literature and science; from poets, rhetoricians, philosophers, critics, historians, geographers; from writers on husbandry, on medicine, on natural history, on grammar, on theology; from almost every form and style of composition, romances, epistles, orations, fables, odes, epigrams, sermons, narratives; from writers of various nations and religions, Pagan, Jew, and Christian, belonging to many different countries, and through a long succession of ages.

Jesus commanded His disciples to make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the Name of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. He commanded us to teach them all things He commanded us. While we can say with the Apostle Paul, "Christ did not send me to baptize, but to preach the Gospel" we must also recognize the command of Christ to baptize them who believe. T.J. Conant has done the hard work of a philologist for us on the word baptizein. Someone may argue that the mode of baptism is not that important. Well, what about atonement? Or justification? We may not write 200 pages on every word of the NT, but we can learn something from Conant on how thorough word study is done.

Biblical Hermeneutics, Milton Terry. Chapter 1 Summary

The Christian is to grow in the grace and knowledge of the Lord Jesus Christ. The minister of Christ is to labor in teaching the Holy Scriptures. The ability to properly interpret the Scriptures is essential to both the Christian and minister of the Gospel. Broadly defined, hermeneutics is the science and art of interpreting the words of an author. General and Special Hermeneutics are two divisions of hermeneutics where General Hermeneutics examines the thinking of an author while Special Hermeneutics emphasizes the style of language used.

In Biblical Hermeneutics some have treated the interpretation of Old and New Testaments as separate from one another. The very mystery of Christ was hidden by God from the foundation of world and made known by Christ to His apostles. The light of the revelation of Jesus Christ must illumine our interpretation of the Hebrew Scriptures. In addition, one cannot detect clear Hebraisms in the Greek New Testament without some understanding of the Hebrew Scriptures. Sacred Hermeneutics compels us to recognize the unity of the Old and New testaments and be diligent to study the whole Bible without neglecting any part.

Biblical hermeneutics is distinguished from introductions to the books of the Bible that deal with such things as the date and authorship of a book. It also differs from Textual Criticism, which aims at discovering the autograph from the extant copies of the Greek New Testament. Nor is biblical hermeneutics in itself exegesis. The exegete utilizes interpretive skills to examine the words of Scripture to bring out their sense. Understanding hermeneutics as an art, exegesis plays a vital role by testing the soundness of hermeneutical principles through the application of them. The necessity of biblical hermeneutics is underscored by the obvious multitude of opinions among Christians, ministers, and scholars.