Chapter 10 Figurative Language

Figures of speech are common to both ancient and modern languages.

Chapter 9: The Historical Standpoint

Gaining knowledge of the geography, history, chronology, manners, and customs of the times of a biblical author is of first importance when interpreting Scripture. By gaining an understanding of these areas, the biblical interpreter will be able to apprehend the full weight of the author’s words within the historical context in which they were given. As must as possible, we must avoid interpreting Scripture in light of our present times and circumstances. Through an accurate knowledge of history, we must seek to transport ourselves back to the times of the biblical writer and seek to see and feel as he did.

Students of Scripture who have made a thorough study of the itinerant life of the Apostle Paul know the importance the knowledge of the physical and political features of the cities that he passed through. Great interest is brought to Paul’s life in knowing that the shores of Troas on which Paul and his companions arrived was the scene of the Trojan War. This is where the tomb of Achilles that ignited the passions of Alexander the Great to go out and conquer the known world was self-same place that by the preaching of the Apostle Paul armed with heavenly armor and the Gospel conquered the whole world. Considering the times and the geography together should also not be neglected. The often familiar passage of Revelation 3:15-17 in reference to the lukewarm Christians of Laodicea is brought into an interesting light knowing something of the two neighboring cities, Colosse and Hierapolis. Colosse was known for its cold springs of water rich in minerals that were piped by aqueducts to Laodicea. Hierapolis was known, and still is, for its hot springs. The cold waters of Colosse provided a refreshing source of water and many people came to the hot springs of Hierapolis to soothe their ailments. But the Christians in Laodicea were metaphorically described as “lukewarm” being of no benefit either to the one who was athirst spiritually or to the spiritually sick in need of relief.

Gaining an understanding of the historical viewpoint of Scripture can add tremendous understanding to the circumstances, times, and place of the writer. This has helped interpreters be certain about the dates of certain books of the Bible, clearer meaning to the words of Scripture, and the people to whom the biblical authors wrote. Historical considerations may also serve to add great weight to silence the criticisms of those who would cast doubt upon the writers.

Chapter 9: The Historical Standpoint

Gaining knowledge of the geography, history, chronology, manners, and customs of the times of a biblical author is of first importance when interpreting Scripture. By gaining an understanding of these areas, the biblical interpreter will be able to apprehend the full weight of the author’s words within the historical context in which they were given. As must as possible, we must avoid interpreting Scripture in light of our present times and circumstances. Through an accurate knowledge of history, we must seek to transport ourselves back to the times of the biblical writer and seek to see and feel as he did.
Students of Scripture who have made a thorough study of the itinerant life of the Apostle Paul know the importance the knowledge of the physical and political features of the cities that he passed through. Great interest is brought to Paul’s life in knowing that the shores of Troas on which Paul and his companions arrived was the scene of the Trojan War. This is where the tomb of Achilles that ignited the passions of Alexander the Great to go out and conquer the known world was self-same place that by the preaching of the Apostle Paul armed with heavenly armor and the Gospel conquered the whole world. Considering the times and the geography together should also not be neglected. The often familiar passage of Revelation 3:15-17 in reference to the lukewarm Christians of Laodicea is brought into an interesting light knowing something of the two neighboring cities, Colosse and Hierapolis. Colosse was known for its cold springs of water rich in minerals that were piped by aqueducts to Laodicea. Hierapolis was known, and still is, for its hot springs. The cold waters of Colosse provided a refreshing source of water and many people came to the hot springs of Hierapolis to soothe their ailments. But the Christians in Laodicea were metaphorically described as “lukewarm” being of no benefit either to the one who was athirst spiritually or to the spiritually sick in need of relief.

Chapter 8: Comparison of Parallel Passages

One of the most important principles in biblical interpretation is to allow Scripture to interpret Scripture. This principle puts the interpreter in the position of allowing the Divine Author of Scripture to speaking for Himself. One of the methods of using this principle is to compare parallel passages. When seeking parallel passages it is important to be able to discern between what is and is not a true parallel. Without such discernment it is possible to wrest the meaning of the Scripture and make it to say something that it does not teach.

There are few parallels, for example, that are expected to be found in the book of Proverbs. Rather, Proverbs is made up of several concise statements of truth and wisdom. While the book of Proverbs may be divided into general subjects, such as the treatment of the evil woman in chapter seven, there is little connection between the varied verses. However, a large portion of the biblical text posses clear parallels and by comparing such instances great light and understanding is brought to the text. In fact, the principle of parallel passages brings light upon certain words and statements of Scripture that would otherwise be very difficult to comprehend.

One foundational rule of seeking for parallels is to first compare them in the writings of the same author. Each writer can be distinguished by a style of his own and may in one writing expound more or less on a particular subject. Adding to this self-evident rule, some of the most valuable parallels are found by comparing passages of the same class, or category. Historical passages may be compared with other historical passages, those that are prophetic with other prophetic passages, and didactic with didactic. Those familiar with the New Testament will be able to see the soundness in this rule when considering the epistles of the Apostle Paul. Comparing the teaching of Paul’s letters first among themselves and then by class will shed great light upon the text.

When speaking of parallel passages it is common to take notice of parallels that are verbal and those that are called real. Verbal parallels are those where the same word occurs within the context of a similar subject matter. This type of parallel is useful in ascertaining the meaning of words. That which is sometimes called a real parallel consists of passages that share similar facts, subjects, sentiments, or doctrines. Such parallels may also be evaluated both historically and doctrinally. A good exegete will consider not just the verbal and real parallels, but take into account all parallels when interpreting the text.

Chapter 7: Context, Scope, and Plan

In order to gain a better understanding of the grammatico-historical sense of Scripture the biblical interpreter must look at the purpose of the biblical author in his writing. It must be assumed that the author has some end or scope in view for the writing. Attention must also be paid the general arrangement, or plan, of the author of the various parts of a work. Once the general scope and plan is ascertained, then attention can be paid to the particular parts of a writings noting the immediate context of the part.

Sometimes the Scripture gives the scope of the work. This is the case with the Paul’s epistle to Titus. In verse five Paul writes, “For this cause left I thee in Crete, that thou shouldest set in order the things that are wanting, and ordain elders in every city, as I appointed thee.” The letter then proceeds with instructions to Titus upon this very theme to encourage and exhort him as to his work of setting things in order and ordaining elders. Other times the scope of book must be determined in other ways. Milton Terry suggests, for example, that Genesis may be ordered in ten parts with where each part begins with “These are the generations..” as a tenfold history from creation through the earliest developments of human history. Such scope is not stated by Moses, but does appear from the book. The recurrent heading through the book of Genesis hints of the author’s plan in the layout of Genesis.

Once a panoramic view of a books plan and scope is obtained, the biblical interpreter is better equipped to draw meaning from particular parts and sections paying careful attention to the context. We often hear in Christian circles that Scripture must be taken in context, but what is really meant by that? The context of a passage of Scripture or small portion may be near or remote from the passage(s) under consideration. It is best to first consider the immediate context and then move outward toward a broader context if the meaning of a verse or passage requires it for a better understanding. It is also helpful to consider how facts or events happen in the order of time, or how a certain teaching may be connected to some historical fact. Through careful study and the constant exercise of observing the text in its context, scope, and plan the biblical interpreter can grow in discerning the grammatico-historical sense of Scripture.

Chapter 6: The Grammatico-Historical Sense

The previous chapters lay the groundwork of discerning the meaning of words in order to consider grammatico-historical sense of Scripture. The grammatical sense of Scripture is the same as the literal sense. It is the approach to the Scriptures that takes a simple, direct, and plain sense of its phrases and sentences. The historical sense seeks to transport the interpreter back in time as it were and consider the manners, customs, and times in which the Scriptures were written. The true work of an exegete can do nothing more than take the biblical author at his word and derive his grammatical principles from the author’s own use of language. The biblical interpreter should also trace the historical data to gain a better understanding of the usus loquendi of a biblical writer.

The essential principles for determining the meaning of words can be justly applied to discovering the grammatico-historical sense of Scripture. Attention to internal definitions given by the author and form used assuming the author never means to contradict himself. Examining the whole text of a book or letter to gain its subject, scope, and purpose should also be sought to gain a proper grammatical construction of sentences. This should be done as much as possible from the author’s historical viewpoint. The grammatico-historical sense is singular in nature. It must never be presumed that the biblical author seeks to speak in a riddles and double meanings unless the text itself indicates such. It is upon this principle that the miracles of the Bible are taken literally. There is no indication from the text of the account of the events that the authors meant anything other than to relay an actual event.

If such reasoning is to be rejected, then what could be said of the resurrection of Jesus? The biblical accounts of the resurrection give the reader no ground to interpret the event as anything other than an actual historical occurrence. Jesus’ resurrection is indeed a literal and historical event. The plain, simple, and direct accounts and teaching regarding the resurrection of Jesus throughout the entire New Testament leave no other conclusion than the event happened as the author’s described it did, or that they willfully and knowingly lied about it for which they were willing to suffer horrendous trials and deaths to maintain the falsehood. No one in their right mind would do such a thing.

Employing the grammatico-historical interpretation of Scripture necessitates that the interpreter be familiar with the original languages of the Bible. The positions of words or phrases in the Greek language sometimes indicate particular emphasis. Verb tenses also serve to illume the text with regard to present, past, or continual action not always discernable in translations. The Scripture itself exhorts the man of God to be diligent to show himself approved of God as workman, or laborer, that doesn’t need to be ashamed (2 Timothy 2:15). Therefore, such principles that teach us to pay close attention to the meaning of words, their tenses and moods, their relationship to one another, the use of language, and the scope, context, and plan of the biblical author are the labors of the one who loves the Scriptures.

Chapter 5: Synonyms

In the process of time words take on different meanings and are used in different ways. Different words are often used to convey a general idea or concept but carry slightly different shades of meaning. For example, the words wonder, surprise, admiration, astonishment, and amazement all carry the same general idea yet slightly different meanings. When interpreting the Scriptures it is helpful to possess the skill to be able to discover Hebrew and Greek synonyms. This area of scholarship is rarely touched upon by scholars. Both spiritual and intellectual discipline is needed to discern synonymous terms of Scripture. Yet, the patient exercise in this field is worth the effort.

For example, there are several words in Hebrew that convey the idea of killing or putting to death. One Hebrew word means a cutting off as found in Psalm 139:19, “Surely thou wilt slay the wicked, O God…” Another Hebrew word that conveys the general idea of killing is found in Joshua 10:26, “And afterward Joshua smote them, and slew them…” where in this case the shade of meaning is the causing of the death, in this case, Joshua. In the former Hebrew word the idea of a death occurring is present, but the cause of it is not found in the meaning of the term. This usage of the word is found over two hundred times in Scripture and is never used for murder. It is the soldier, governor, or the Lord that causes one to die. The Hebrew word ratsach is yet another word used for killing, but in this case the meaning is the act of murder or manslaughter. It is this word that we find in Exodus 20:13, “Thou shalt not kill.” Too often those uninformed in the synonymous Hebrew words for killing have misinterpreted or misunderstanding Exodus 20:13.

The same can be found in the Greek language of the New Testament. There are two Greek terms translated life in our English Bibles. The first is bios and commonly refers to the means of living for the present life. The widow in Mark 12:44 cast into the treasury her whole living, or all that was necessary for her present life. In Luke 8:14 we see that this women spent her whole living on physicians. The second term is zoe is mainly used in the New Testament to mean essential life possessed by man, whether in this life or the next. Jesus give eternal zoe, life, not eternal bios. It should be clear that by gaining some understanding of the synonyms of words may yield much profit to the biblical interpreter.

Chapter 4: The Usus Loquendi

Given that a word may carry manifold meanings it is important to become familiar with the use of language, the usus loquendi, to arrive at the meaning of a word in Scripture. Several hundred years ago the word let meant to go before whereas today it means to hinder, or prevent. The use of language over time can significantly alter the meaning of a word to mean very opposite things. Sometimes a word is used in a peculiar sense completely separate from its definitional meaning in modern or ancient times. When this occurs the context of the passage needs to be consulted when the author applies his own definition to the word. For example, the word perfect or complete found in 2 Timothy 3:17 is defined by the author as meaning “thoroughly furnished unto every good work.” In Hebrews 5:14 the definition of perfect is defined as being able to discern between good and evil.

Special care and attention then must be paid to the immediate context to discover the particular meaning a word. Most words in any language typically posses a wide semantic range where the precise meaning can only be discovered by context. The Greek term pneuma, translated as wind or spirit possesses a variety of meanings from the physical wind to the Spirit of God. There is no difficulty in determining the meaning of the word in a given passage when taken in context. For example, in John 3:8 this term is used twice with two different meanings. The use of a word in its context must not be dislodged from the subject. The nature of the subject being discussed in 2 Corinthians 5:1-4 limits the terms house, tabernacle, building, to the body and not to heaven itself. The main subject in the context of the passage is the current state of the human body and what it will become in glory. This illustration also serves to show how biblical authors use language to contrast ideas. Often their use of thesis and antithesis define the meaning of words that are used.

Hebrew parallelisms also help to discover the usus loqendi of several words. In Psalm 18:6 we see an example: “In my distress I called upon the LORD, and cried unto my God: he heard my voice out of his temple, and my cry came before him, even into his ears.” The words call and cry are explained and illustrated by God’s hearing his voice and his cry coming to God’s ears. Attention should also be paid to the subject and predicates in order to limit or define the meaning of words. This kind of careful attention is employing the interpretive method of the grammatical and historical approach. It is allowing the Scripture to speak for itself and for Scripture to interpret Scripture.

One of the most significant and important methods for detecting the usus loquendi is comparing parallel passages of Scripture. In the first place, the biblical interpreter should seek for parallel passages within the writings of the same author and upon the same subjects that may be treated elsewhere. Then, in recognition of the divine authorship of Scripture, other biblical authors can consulted who treat upon the same subject or narratives. A clear example of parallel passages is Romans 8:12, Ephesians 6:13-17, and 1 Thessalonians 5:8 which when compared help to explain what is the armor of light that we are commanded in Romans to put on in Ephesians and Thessalonians.

While etymological considerations are very helpful in determining the meaning of a word, it must not do so against the general usage of a word. Recognizing the general and familiar use of words can keep the interpreter from absurdities. Some, in seeking to give place for women to teach or preach in the Church, have appealed to the word lalein found in 1 Corinthians 14:35 translated “to speak” but carries the meaning of babble. The suggestion is that women are not permitted to babble in Church but are certainly permitted to speak. This same word, however, is used over twenty times in the New Testament and its common usage gives the meaning of discourse or speaking. To move outside this common usage would cast absurd meanings on such passages as verse 29 of the same chapter and have it read, “Let the prophets babble two or three, and let the other judge.”

Finally, as an aid to understanding the usus loquendi of the biblical text ancient versions of the Scriptures and ancient glossaries can help. The Greek translation of the Old Testament, the Septuagint, carries great weight in illuminating difficult words or phrases. The Latin Vulgate, the Peshito-Syriac Version, the Targums, and other ancient versions of the Scriptures can serve to some degree in determining the meaning of rare words. More weight and authority must be given to the language itself rather than from ancient versions because often the versions differ great one from another. Discernment and caution must be employed in using ancient versions, but they can serve a useful purpose.

Chapter 3: The Primary Meaning of Words

A brief overview of the history and development of language over time reveals the need to understanding the meaning of words. In order to understand the meaning of Hebrew, Greek, and Aramaic words, it is important to know the original meaning of the word, how a word was used at the time, how the meaning of a word may have changed over time, and recognize the importance of a word’s synonyms. This research and study is referred to as etymology. Another field of science useful in understanding words is comparative philology. Philological research traces a word through families of languages taking note of the variety of forms, different usages, and different shades of meaning. Philological and etymological study is especially helpful with very ancient words that appear only once in the text of Scripture where the meaning of it is difficult of ascertain.

In every language known to man today the original meaning of some word has been lost. The great wealth of Greek literature has served to aid the biblical interpreter for a great many of the New Testament words. However, the Old Testament Scriptures are what essentially remain of the Hebrew language. When Joseph dreamed of a ladder where the angels of God ascended and descended upon it, the Hebrew word of ladder is cullam. This word appears only once in the Hebrew Scriptures. Etymological research suggests that its root is calal, meaning to lift up, or cast up, or exalt. Tracing the Arabic word, sullum, leaves little doubt to the word meaning stairway or ladder.

In the New Testament, the Greek word epiousion, translated as ‘daily’ in the Lord’s Prayer in Matthew 6:11 and Luke 11:3, appears nowhere else in Greek literature. In order to arrive at the meaning of the word, its roots must be traced. Etymologically there are two possible derivations. The first is epeimi, which means to go toward or approach, and would mean the bread for the coming day, or tomorrow’s bread. The second is possible root is epi and oupia meaning existence or subsistence. Given the sentence itself in which this word appears, the meaning becomes clear to be our daily essential subsistence, or bread.

These examples serve to illustrate the need for understanding both the etymology of a word and tracing a word through a family of languages in order to arrive at its proper meaning. Tracing the derivations of words often reveals the meaning of a particular word which may be justly deduced from the context in which it is found, especially when the word is only used in the Bible. This is also helpful when seeking the meaning of compound words, such as the word peacemaker found in Matthew 5:9. The Greek is eirenopoios, made up of two words, eirene, meaning peace, and poieo, meaning to make. Tracing the etymology of this compound word helps bring meaning to the text when a word is used only once and is only found in the Bible.

Chapter 2: Different Methods of Interpretation

It is helpful in understanding sound principles of biblical interpretation to know some of the history of the various schools of thought from before the Christian era and through its early development. By gaining some understanding of the principles used in history in interpreting the Scriptures can help us avoid false and spurious principles and discern the true. The alternative is ignorance which may indeed doom us to repeat the mistakes history plainly reveals.

The earliest method of interpretation practiced by the Jews of Alexandria was the Allegorical method. An earlier origin of this method can be traced to Greek philosophers who employed this method to clear the logical roadblocks certain philosophers were having with the writings of Homer. In order to satisfy the “modern” Greek philosopher the religious writings of the Greeks were interpreted allegorically to remove the perceived absurdities of a literal interpretation. Likewise, the theophanies and anthropomorphisms of the Hebrew Scriptures were repulsive to the philosophers of ancient Greece. The Alexandrian Jews, such as Philo, turned to the Allegorical method in order to make the stories and descriptions of God acceptable to their culture. In similar fashion, some of the early church fathers, such as Clement of Alexandria, employed the same methods. Clement, for example, interpreted the certain food prohibitions in the Mosaic Law as emblematic of bad virtue such as the raven representing greed. While the Allegorical method sought to maintain a high view of Scripture, it did so at the expense of the normal significance of words and led the interpreters to fanciful conjecture. In the Allegorical school of interpretation the true meaning of the text is limited only by the whims and fancy of the interpreter.

Related to the allegorical method, the Mystical interpretation sought to find hidden meaning in every word of Scripture. Origen, for example, taught that since man’s nature consisted of body, soul, and spirit, the Scriptures consist of literal, moral, and spiritual meaning. The 17th century Christian mystic Emanuel Swedenborg also maintained this three-fold meaning to Scripture. He maintained that Scripture held three senses, the literal, the spiritual, and the celestial. Rather than stopping at the plain meaning of Exodus 20:13 which reads, “Thou shalt not kill” he sought a hidden or deeper meaning than the prohibition of murder to the fanciful idea that it forbids the devil from destroying man’s soul.

Not surprisingly, the Quakers employed a mystical interpretation of the Scriptures which was based on “inward light” called the Pietistic interpretation. Ironically, such internal illuminations claimed by the followers of such a method exhibit contradictory interpretations serving as a just refutation of their principles. Like the Allegorical and Mystical schools, Pietism holds a high view of Scripture but the principles employed in its interpretation are devoid of rational judgment and common sense. A Quaker-Pietist interprets the Scriptures as what seems right in his own eyes.

Perhaps as a reaction to the fanciful Mystic and Allegorical schools of interpretation, the Accommodation Theory rose out of German Rationalism. This destructive theory interpreted all accounts of miracles, the resurrection, angels and demons, heaven and hell, as accommodations to the superstitious beliefs of ancient people. Any supernatural element in Scripture was completely set aside and disregarded on the grounds that those to whom they were written lived in ignorance. This school of thought then assails the integrity of the biblical authors and the Son of God who served only to confirm their hearers in the alleged superstitions rather than deliver them from them. On this ground this school of thought utterly collapses upon itself. Rising out of such rigid rationalistic thinking was the system of Moral Interpretation foisted on the world by Immanuel Kant. Kant proposed to judge the Scriptures according to whether a moral lesson could be reasonably discerned. If no such lesson could be rationally arrived to then the interpreter was at liberty to set aside the literal and historical sense. Similar to the mystical and allegorical methods, the Moral Interpretation leaves the sense and meaning of Scripture subject to the whims and conjecture of the interpreter.

Probably the most damaging method of interpretation is the Naturalistic method. This method proposes that the interpreter should examine the Scriptures according to what is fact and opinion. All supernatural influence upon the biblical authors is rejected. Miracles and other supernatural acts recording in Scripture are rejected a priori and a naturalistic explanation is substituted. For example, this method rejects Jesus walking on water and interprets the passage as meaning He was walking on the shore. Peter didn’t actually walk on water when Jesus bid him to, but rather the boat was near enough to the shore that he would not sink. This method utterly fails on the grounds of normal rules of human speech. Thankfully, this method received no widespread influence or interest.

Not long after the Naturalistic method, David Friedrich Strauss set forth a Mythical theory in his book Life of Jesus published in 1835. Strauss’ theory was logical and self-consistent and received much interest in the Christian world at the time. This theory, based on Hegelian pantheism, denied that Christ established a Church or proclaimed the Gospel according the New Testament. Rather, it proposed that such things were the mystical creation of the Church. Strauss proposed rejecting historical biblical narratives if they could not be reconciled with known scientific laws or theory. He also proposed that if a narrative was inconsistent then it could be regarded as mythical. He felt that if the biblical authors wrote poetically or in a manner beyond their learning, then the narrative was concocted. Furthermore, he alleged that a reported event could be regarded as myth simply because it contained an uncanny agreement with Jewish Messianic ideas or was just simply unbelievable. I suppose that even those newly initiated to the faith of Christ could discern the subjective prejudice inherent in Strauss’ theory. The notion that the Apostles knowingly perpetrated a myth is outside of clear thinking and logic. Myths develop over time long after the actual events and occurrences have passed out of memory. The death and resurrection of Jesus, His miracles and teaching, were recording far too soon from the actual events themselves to be construed as myth.

Other rationalistic methods arose from the likes of F.C. Baur, Renan, Schenkel, and others offering some shade or difference from the ones mentioned before, but all sharing a naturalistic presupposition. Rarely do any of these critics agree with one another to such a degree that they destroy one another. History has already shown since Terry wrote this chapter that given enough time, such nonsense merely implodes upon itself and is swept away as dust in the wind.

Apologetic and Dogmatic methods of interpretation arose out of rationalistic and skeptical assaults on the Scriptures. Apologetics and dogma have a significant and legitimate place in sound exegesis. Terry rejects as dangerous the method to maintain a preconceived hypothesis as dogma and not merely as starting point for investigation. Any dogma of the Scriptures attested to must be defensible from Scripture alone and not on the ground of tradition. The books of the Bible must be defended logically and reasonably showing that their just due is to be regarded as the revelation of God. All facts of Scripture, no matter how difficult they may seem at times to the defender of Holy writ, must be affirmed and acknowledged. What must be rejected is irrational conclusions and false deductions.

The Grammatico-Historical method of interpretation is the most commendable of all schools. All of its principles seek to take from the Scriptures the meaning which the writers meant to convey. This school of interpretation begins with the assumption that the writers of Holy Scripture did not write with the intent of beguile or mislead their readers. It is not denied by this method that the Bible differs from other books being Divinely inspired and containing supernatural revelations, symbols, and unique claims. It does affirm that common sense and reason, as well as education, should aid our interpretation by mastering the language of the writers, understanding the manners and customs in which they wrote, and seek the scope and plan of each book of the Bible. From the moment mankind was able to communicate by language, mankind became interpreters. It is as unreasonable to employ fanciful interpretive methods upon our communications with one another as some have attempted to foist upon the sacred Scriptures.

Part II: Principles of Biblical Hermeneutics. Chapter 1: Preliminary

It goes without saying that the world is filled with interpreters of the Bible. And it often asked why there exists such a wide variety of interpretation. Some would answer that it is because people are not being guided by some earthly prophet or infallible governing authority. Others have taken aim at the Scripture itself. Yet, God has communicated His Word to His people. If there is any reasonable explanation for the varied interpretations of Holy Scripture we can be certain the fault lies with the interpreter and not the pure Word of God. The principles of biblical hermeneutics provide tremendous help to the student of Scripture to draw from the Scripture itself the meaning of the author. While the Scriptures certainly contain hard and difficult sayings, the Lord gave His Word so that it may make even a child wise unto salvation.

These governing laws and methods help the interpreter determine the meaning of the Scripture. Hermeneutical principles should become to the exegete what axioms are to a mathematician. They are applied with uniformity and consistency throughout the entire exegetical process. Sound hermeneutical principles are not something to be disregarded as unspiritual. Rather, they are safe guidelines to the student of Scripture and keep us from straying into fanciful and sometimes even fanatical interpretations.

We should also consider how someone can determine which principles to use. In order to discover these principles we must turn to the Scriptures themselves. We must follow the hermeneutic of the Apostles and Prophets. There are sufficient examples from the Scriptures establish sound principles. We can observe the interpretation of dreams given in Scripture, visions, types, parables, and symbols and follow one author to another their own hermeneutic. The Bible is not like the pagan babblings of sorcerers filled with riddles and double meanings. God communicated to the world in times past by His prophets and in these last days has spoken to us in His Son. When the Holy Scriptures are taken as a whole and permitted to speak for itself, then the chief hermeneutic appears plainly. The Bible is its own best interpreter.

Chapter 9: Qualification of an Interpreter

(no time to edit at the moment, sorry for typos, et.)

It may seem odd to the average Christian that there should be qualifications for an interpreter of Scripture. While it is true that any true Christian may turn to Holy Scripture, even as a child, and understand much that they may grow in the grace and knowledge of the Lord Jesus Christ, those who would be teachers and expositors of God’s Word must possess sufficient competency. These core competencies may be classified as intellectual, educational, and spiritual. While it is true that these several areas may be developed through training, some degree of giftedness is also required.

Any able interpreter must be of able-mind and sound judgment. Too often the Scriptures are interpreted by the wildest machinations of a fanciful mind leading to the most absurd doctrines. One qualification for an elder is that he be sober-minded. A teacher and leader of God’s flock must be self-controlled and in one’s right mind in order to adequately “…convince, rebuke, exhort, with all longsuffering and teaching.” If a man is not possessed of such a mind then he must either grow into maturity or be considered unqualified as an interpreter of God’s Word. An interpreter must be able to comprehend the basic ideas and scope of the biblical writer. An epistle, for example, must be perceived first as a whole unit before its several parts may be adequately expounded.

Equally important in understanding what a passage teaches is also comprehending what it does not teach. A keen and perceptive intellect will be able to recognize and analyze the biblical text to discover its true import. To some degree this may be accomplished with a sober mind as the interpreter transports himself to the places and times of the biblical writers. Through reasonable investigation of the language, culture, and history of the Bible the sound exegete may rationally imagine himself living in the times of the apostles and prophets to see and feel as they did. From a disciplined and educated imagination the interpreter may expound the doctrines of Holy Scripture consistently and logically. In such ways an interpreter of God’s Word may be intellectually qualified and apt to teach.

While a keen intellect is important to proper interpretation of Scripture, a sound and thorough education is also necessary. The fields of study in archeology, geography, science, and philosophy may add an incredible of insight on the pages of Scripture. Chronological studies can furnish the exegete with a wealth of information regarding events, dates, and the division of the great eras of history. The study of antiquities may transport the interpreter into the past to perceive the habits and customs of the ancients. The Annals by Tacitus shed considerable light on the political climate of Rome at the time of Jesus. Learning the politics of the ancient world can enable the interpreter to set the doctrine of Christ set forth in the New Testament. Having a thorough acquaintance of the sciences and philosophical thought can serve to elevate the sublime teaching of God and serve to give evidence to its Divine origin. Becoming familiar with classical literature and the languages of the Bible can only serve to enhance the expositor’s message and making him a bulwark against the ever onslaught of false religion and skepticism.

Intellectual and educational qualifications are qualifications that may be honed and developed. Spiritual qualifications, however, are obtained from on high. The Apostle Paul wrote to the Corinthians, “…the natural man does not receive the things of the Spirit of God, for they are foolishness to him; nor can he know them, because they are spiritually discerned.” 1 Cor 2:14. Jesus said to Nicodemus, “…unless one is born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God.” John 3:3. As important as natural abilities are to the teacher of God’s Word, much more that such a man be truly regenerated by the Spirit of the Living God. If the work of the supernatural grace of Almighty God has not wrought upon a man’s heart then he is wholly and completely incapable of expounding the Holy Scriptures no matter what natural abilities of intellect or education he may possess.

Those who are born from above and do possess sufficient intellect and education to expound Scripture must also be motivated from a sincere and fervent love of the truth. The interpreters passion for truth and God’s glory must be stronger than prejudicial opinions he may possess. Jesus taught that the person that does evil hates the light, but those who do the truth come to the light. The interpreter of God’s Word must remain a humble seeker as he approached the Scripture and pant for the pure and unadulterated truth of God. A zealous and enthusiastic passion for the Word should burn brightly in the heart of every preacher of Holy Writ. Such a disposition arises from the one who has been with Jesus in long hours of private prayer. He has been so touched by the Spirit of God that like Isaiah he has had his lips touched by a live coal from the throne of grace. From such a humble walk with the Lord Jesus in Spirit and truth will pervade a reverence of God and His Word. “For they that are after the flesh do mind the things of the flesh; but they that are after the Spirit the things of the Spirit.” Romans 8:5

Chapter 8: The Divine Inspiration of the Scriptures

This is a summary from Milton Terry's book on the Divine Inspiration of the Scriptures. It will most likely seem inadequate to the modern reader (Terry's writing is 120 years old) as he is not addressing, necessarily, a postmodern mind. Neverthess, some points are useful. It seemed to me his main audience was Christians and therefore the chapter not really polemical.

Those who approach the Bible as a work of Divine origin will certainly take its sacred pages in hand with care and reverence. When we speak of inspiration regarding Holy Scripture we must not think of this as the term is used today of an inspired song or work of poetry. Nor should the inspiration of the Scriptures be thought of as some emotional or ecstatic rapture of the soul. All such thoughts only show the origin to be from man. The Bible does not have it its origin from man, but from God through holy men. God has spoken “…by the mouth of all his prophets…” (Acts 3:8) and the Apostles of the Lord Jesus Christ did not teach words which originated from themselves but taught such things “…taught by the Spirit.” (1 Corinthians 2:13).

With such an affirmation there is implied the recognition of the Divine and human components. The human element is evident in passages such as Luke’s Gospel in which is written, “It seemed good to me also…” (Luke 1:3) or in the style and wordage of the writers. Statements of affection for certain persons and greetings to individuals also show the human element in the Word of God. Differences in the wording of a parable or event also bring to light that it was indeed holy men who wrote. The Christian must not shrink from recognizing this fact anymore than we should shrink from the reality that God was manifest in the flesh. The devout Muslim looks with contempt upon the idea that God condescended to humble Himself and take on the nature of Adam. Should then the Christian meet the Holy Scriptures with an atheistic contempt because the Holy Spirit was pleased to speak by the mouth of His Apostles and Prophets?

Yet it is a mere assertion that the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments are Divine that makes it so? It is certainly true that the testimony of the Apostles and Prophets attest to the Divine origin of the written Word. The Apostle Paul declares that all Scripture is given by inspiration of God, or God-breathed, and Peter declared that holy men spoke as they “…were carried along by the Holy Spirit.” (2 Timothy 3:16; 2 Peter 1:21). The Old Testament Scriptures frequently announce their words with “Thus saith the Lord” or “The Word of the Lord came unto him saying.” The Bible does stand as its own witness, not in a well-crafted argument defending its Divine origin, but in simple kingly declaration so as to say, “This is My Book.”

A few considerations in additional to the Bible’s own declaration may be helpful in affirming the Divine origin of Scripture. Throughout the Old Testament and the New it is seen that God intended from the beginning to communicate to His people and the world by Scripture. The purpose would be that the man of God would be furnished with all that he needed and quipped for every good work. It is through the comfort of the Scriptures that the Lord intended to give His people hope. (Romans 15:4). God indeed spoke in times past by the prophets to the fathers at many times and different ways, and in these last days has spoken to us in His Son Jesus Christ. It may also help the one who trusts in Christ to take note of the difference between revelation and inspiration. Divine revelation consists of what God reveals to man that is otherwise impossible to know. The inspiration of the biblical authors consisted of Divine superintendence to record what they saw or knew whether by revelation or otherwise. Visions, dreams, prophesy, and the knowledge of the origin of the universe all consisted of divine revelation. The record of the Acts of the Apostles by Luke is most certainly inspired of God yet was not revealed to him apart from his own knowledge of the events. The Lord who commanded both Moses and the Apostle John to write would certainly by an act of singular care and Providence preserve the Holy Scriptures precisely as we have them today. This providence extended to the very words and forms found in Holy Scripture. The God who does not allow the small sparrow to fall to the ground apart from His will certainly does not allow a single word of the sacred Scriptures to be lost to mankind.

Of course, various arguments against the inspiration of Holy Scripture have been put forth. It has been suggested that a divine inspiration of men to write the Bible would negate the free agency or actions of men turning them into automatons. However, it does not follow that the mind that is so influenced by the Spirit of God that the will is overtaken. To suppose this would also presuppose the Word could not become flesh and dwell among us in the Person of Christ. Others have asserted that verbal differences in giving the account of some event disprove the Divine Author of Scripture or else betray a corruption. This reasoning presupposes that the Divine purpose to be to furnish uniformity to prove divinity. Why can it not be supposed that unity seen in Scripture’s diversity the purpose for different details? Without the knowledge of the divine purpose in the plenary differences it cannot be concluded that they are a mark of non-inspiration. Even after one hundred and twenty years since the written of Milton Terry’s book, skeptics and scoffers are still alleging discrepancies, contradictions, and errors in the Bible. And the answer to such remains the same: No real errors can be shown.

"...his spirit was stirred in him..."

When Paul walked into Athens we read that his spirit was stirred, or angered, within him about all the idolatry he saw. Jerry preached on this last Lord's Day. Paul percieved that they were very religious, or as the AV puts it, too superstitious. If the Apostle walked through our 'Athens' what would he perceive? If he stood in our market place, what would provoke his spirit today?

I guess that's not given to the Apostle Paul, but to us.

Well, my spirit is provoked and stirred.

I am not observing that our "Athenians" are very religious. I am hearing they are apathetic and ignorant. Local Muslims in our community who are exhorting their people to Da'Wa (Muslim Evangelism) are informing Muslims that Christians have not read their Bibles and are ignorant of their history.

This provokes me.

The Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life polled over 3,000 adults concerning religious knowledge. They report, "Atheists and agnostics, Jews and Mormons are among the highest-scoring groups on a new survey of religious knowledge, outperforming evangelical Protestants, mainline Protestants and Catholics on questions about the core teachings, history and leading figures of major world religions." Article

This provokes me.

A pastor in Texas remarked that biblical illiteracy is a problem. He doesn't want church leaders to merely react to this, but to "intentionally, positively act." Article

This provokes me.

An article posted to the Christian Post is entitled "Christianity a 'Faded Memory' for Most Young Britons." A study done on Generation Y, those born after 1982, found "...that young people were more likely to put their faith in friends, their family or themselves than in God." Article

This provokes me.

The Pew Forum had a small sample of the questions they asked people on their website. You could take a "quiz" and see where you ranked. They also gave a hand-out which I attached to this email. What an interesting way to assess where our youth are, for example. Where do you stand? If done correctly, it could show exactly where they might stand in their knowledge as a preface to the launch of an apologetics series or world religions course...

Take the Quiz here

Whatever reaction we have to the news out there or data we could draw from our own people, I agree with that Texas pastor: Let's be intentional and positive in our action. But for the Lord's sake, let's not sit and do nothing. Do we want our people ultimately learning about Church history or about world religions with liberal atheists in universities (like I did), or right here in our homes and churches?

I do know that when I see and hear these things my spirit is stirred. And I am stirred to action.

In Christ,
Geoff

Chapter 7: Textual Criticism

Note: This is a mere summary of the subject. In fact, it is a summary of a summary. Milton Terry does not treat Textual Criticism too thoroughly and does not address at all the work of either Dean Burgon or F.H.A Scrivener. In other words, it is not at all balanced. I do not share Terry's view on this subject and so this summary has taken a more "observational" approach with a hint of disagreement. Please do not take this summary in any wise as sufficient to educate or scarcely introduce yourself to the subject of textual criticism.

Textual Criticism refers to the scientific investigation of an ancient work of literature. The examination of the date, authorship, and interpretation of the Bible is called Higher Criticism. The effort to recontruct the autograph of the biblical text through collating and scrutinizing the extant copies, or manuscripts, of the Bible is referred to as Lower Criticism. It is necessary that any expositor of the Holy Scriptures be familiar with this field of study. A truly devout study of God’s Word will certainly be concerned with the transmission of the text from the days of the Apostles to the present time.

All ancient writings that have survived the passage of time exist in copies of the original. These copies may be collected and examined under certain principles and canons seeking to arrive at the original text. In addition, Scriptural quotations from ancient writers, such as the Apostolic Fathers, may be consulted regarding variant readings. For the Old Testament the primary ancient text is that of the Masoretes referred to as the Masoretic Text. These scribes and rabbis developed a vowel system in the sixth century that enabled a version of the OT to be readable. Milton’s short review of Textual Criticism, being written in 1890, did not have the benefit of the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1946-47. The Dead Sea Scrolls gave to the world older copies than the Masoretic and have only served to confirm the authenticity and reliability of the Old Testament. Even more abundant manuscript evidence exists for the New Testament text. Manuscripts exist in a variety of forms. All-capital texts are called uncials. These are older, and fewer in number, than the later miniscule, or cursive, manuscripts which make up the majority of the existing copies. Turning to the examination of the extant copies, both internal and external evidence is considered to construct a complete text.

External evidence investigates the age of a text and seeks to determine which of the manuscripts carry more weight in determining the original reading. It is generally thought among modern critics that the manuscripts which are older are more likely the original reading. Quotations of the New Testament from the early Church Fathers are also given prominence. Generally, modern scholarship affords more authority and value to the texts with regard to age, origin, and character. Some translations of the Bible, for example, include a notation on disputed passages suggesting that more reliable and ancient passages do not contain certain verses. This is based on the principle of giving more weight to the uncials, which are older yet, fewer in number, than to the cursives which carry a later date but are more numerous. It is possible that the later cursives are a more accurate translation of the autograph but this logic is generally rejected by modern criticism.

External evidence also takes into account agreement between two manuscripts should they be found in different locations. It is thought that copies divergent from one another in proximity carry more weight than those found in similar locations because those in close proximity may have been copied from one another. Since one is handling the Word of God, great care must be taken when engaged in this kind of work. No amount of study and expertise should be spared in carrying out the task. When external evidence seems to fall short of settling a variant reading, internal evidence may be of some benefit. Nevertheless, even more caution ought to be employed as the weight of internal evidence depends on the reason and conjecture of the textual critic.

Internal evidence has been employed in settling word order due to variants in the manuscripts. It is often judged by the critic that the word order is chosen based on what is perceived as the biblical writer’s particular style. This is deduced from other writings of the author. For example, critics have disputed the reading of John 13:14 “who might it be” which has ancient textual support rendering it rather “who is it” because the Apostle John never uses the operative mood. Internal evidence also gives more weight to the shorter reading rather than a longer one assuming that scribes were prone to add to the text rather than omit from it in order to give more clarity. Along this same line of thinking, modern textual critics choose the more difficult reading to a simpler one. They suppose that a copyist may have been inclined to make the text more readable and easier to understand or harmonize a portion of Scripture that seemed to the copyist to attract attention. Modern critics will also prefer a certain reading over another when they suppose the others could be more easily derived.

These principles and canons of modern textual criticism must be seen as guidelines and not rules. It is obvious that there is much left to the personal judgment of the critic. Samuel Prideaux Tregelles, a 19th century textual critic, remarked, “The point aimed at is a moral certainty, or a moral probability.” This is obviously something subjective and it is hoped that the principles set forth in modern textual criticism will lead the critic to the true reading of the autograph casting aside the more mechanical method of weighing the number of witnesses. It should be noted that a vast majority of the variants in the texts deal with slight changes in spelling which have little bearing on the actual meaning of the text itself.

Chapter 6: The Greek Language

The Greek people may be biblically traced to Javan, the son of Japheth. Their language heralds from the eastern parts of India to the western shores of Europe. We find some of the greatest works of philosophy, history, architecture, mathematical science, and sculpture given to the world from this people and in their tongue. The language has changed over time like so many languages of the world through migration and military conquest. The common form, called Hellenistic or Macedonian, blended the previous forms to become the common tongue used in the Christian era.



Athens, Antioch, and Alexandria became the centers for education and literacy. The famous Alexandrian Library founded by Ptolemy Soter is still known throughout the world. The city of Alexandria contained a large number of Jews likely due to the relaxed political climate at the time. The Jews adopted the Greek language and soon came to be called Hellenists. It is common to call the Greek of the NT Hellenistic Greek for this reason. This influence of the Jews may have brought into the language some Hebraisms giving to the NT unique qualities not known before. The NT manuscripts, the Septuagint, and the apocryphal books are all given in Hellenistic Greek. The writings of Philo, Josephus, and the Apostolic Fathers also serve as examples of this form of Greek and are useful in learning its peculiarities.

The characteristics of Hellenistic Greek have been arranged into eight categories by Planck. He notes that biblical Greek bears the peculiarity of containing foreign words such as Aramaic and Latin. It is also noted that the New Testament writers did not follow a standard writing system. They each had their own manner of spelling words for example. Some of these differences may be attributed to a copyist and not necessarily the author. Compared to other Greek forms, the NT writers used peculiar flexion of nouns and verbs. Moreover, another peculiarity of the NT writers is nouns given in a non-uniform manner. Nouns are sometimes given in the masculine and neuter forms whereas in the Septuagint they would be given consistently and uniformly.

There is also to be found in the NT Greek text nouns that are given entirely new forms or are new words themselves. An addition, new meaning and significance was given to known Greek words. Careful and patient study must be given in order to trace any changes in such meanings. An example is the word euagglion. In classical times the word carried the meaning of the reward for a good message. Later, it came to be used of sacrifice for a good message, and then still later came to mean the good message, or news, itself. Therefore, the meaning in the NT is the good news, or Gospel, of Jesus Christ.

It is apparent that Hellenistic Greek adopted some Hebraisms. Perfect Hebraisms are seen in words, phrases, and contractions unique to Hebrew or Aramean appear to be transferred directly into the Greek language. Imperfect Hebraisms have some measure of probability of being introduced from Hebrew. Words such as hosanna are direct transfers from Aramaic to Greek, and the word translated ‘bowels’ in the AV draws the concept from the Hebrew. Certain expressions and grammatical constructions can also be traced as particularly Hebrew. This can be seen by noticing the verb following the preposition where in Classical Greek verbs stand alone in accusative or dative cases without a preposition.

Such Hebraist constructions and styles would be natural to the NT writers who wrote under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit in expounding the Hebrew Scriptures which they were well acquainted with. The same Spirit that moved the prophets of old then breathed-out through the holy Apostles as they made known the power and coming of the Lord Jesus Christ by the Hebrew Scripture in the New Testament. When the Lord dealt primarily in the world through the Hebrew people He spoke to them in their language. But when the fullness of times had come when Jehovah when the middle wall of separation be torn down between Jew and Gentile, He set His revelation in the language of the Greeks.

Chapter 5: The Chaldee Language

The Chaldee language, sometimes called Aramaic or Syriac, is found in a few portions of the OT Scriptures. We find this dialect in Jeremiah, Daniel, and Ezra. The Chaldean tongue was in common use during the time of the Babylonian captivity of the Jews. It was during this time of captivity Hebrew gradually ceased to be spoken as the common tongue and the Jews came to adopt the Chaldean as their own. This language would have been learned by such men as Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah who were chosen by Nebuchadnezzar to be taught “the tongue of the Chaldeans.” Daniel 1:4.

It may be inquired as to why God chose to have certain portions of the OT Scriptures put into the language of the Babylonians. The answer begins to be apparent as we look at the instances of Aramaic in the Bible. In Daniel 2:4 we read, “Then spake the Chaldeans to the king in Syriack, O King, live forever…” The Aramaic begins at the words “O King, live forever..” and follows through the discourse. Daniel stood as a prophet in the courts of the king of Babylon to prophesy both of his own people and that of the Babylonians and of many world empires in the future. It was fitting that God chose to put this prophecy into the language of the people with whom it had to do. Furthermore, the very fact that we find this ancient tongue in the midst of the Hebrew Scriptures serves as monumental evidence of the validity of the facts being presented in the text.

Ezra is also a book of the Bible where we find the Aramaic language. Ezra lived about one hundred years after Daniel and was an exile during the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus in 457 B. C. Ezra was a highly educated priest and scribe and it is believed that he is responsible for the collection of the sacred texts of the Hebrews into a canon essentially the same as possessed today in the Old Testament. In Nehemiah 8:1 it is Ezra that brought the “…the book of the Law of Moses” and read it to the people that they might understand it. In Ezra 4:7 we read that a letter written by Bishlam, Mithredath, Tabeel, and their companions “…was written in the Syrian tongue, and interpreted in the Syrian tongue.” Ezra gives 4:8 through 6:18 in Aramaic and like Daniel, serves as a testament to the authenticity of the life of Ezra and God’s wisdom in speaking to a nation in their language.

In many ways the language is similar to Hebrew being a Semitic language but as in all languages it contains its own peculiarities. Babylonian-Aramaic became the language of the Hebrews while they were in exile and remained their common tongue through the New Testament period. The use of Aramaic in the New Testament is evident by many words such as Raca, Gogotha, Rabboni, Abba, and Maranatha to name a few. As the fulfillment of the Old Covenant in Christ steadfastly approached we witness the Providence of God transitioning His people to the language in which He chose to speak to the world. From the beginning God spoke to the nation of Israel by the prophets in their Hebrew tongue. As prophecy began to speak to the nations around them the language of the sacred text spoke to them that they may understand. And as the fullness of times approached for the Gospel to be preached to all nations beginning in Jerusalem, so too did the language of Scripture change in order to speak to the world in the Greek language.

What Does the Bible Teach About Repentance?

The verb metanoeo is translated "repent" in the KJV 34 times. The word 'repentance" is the Greek metanoia is found 24 times in the KJV.

Matthew 3:2
And saying, Repent ye: for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.

Matthew 4:17
From that time Jesus began to preach, and to say, Repent: for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.

Matthew 9:13
But go ye and learn what that meaneth, I will have mercy, and not sacrifice: for I am not come to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance.

Matthew 11:20
Then began he to upbraid the cities wherein most of his mighty works were done, because they repented not:

Mark 1:15
And saying, The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand: repent ye, and believe the gospel.

Mark 6:12
And they went out, and preached that men should repent.

Luke 3:8
Bring forth therefore fruits worthy of repentance, and begin not to say within yourselves, We have Abraham to our father: for I say unto you, That God is able of these stones to raise up children unto Abraham.

Luke 13:3
I tell you, Nay: but, except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish.

Luke 15:7
I say unto you, that likewise joy shall be in heaven over one sinner that repenteth, more than over ninety and nine just persons, which need no repentance.

Luke 24:47
And that repentance and remission of sins should be preached in his name among all nations, beginning at Jerusalem.

Acts 2:38
Then Peter said unto them, Repent, and be baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus Christ for the remission of sins, and ye shall receive the gift of the Holy Ghost.

Acts 3:19
Repent ye therefore, and be converted, that your sins may be blotted out, when the times of refreshing shall come from the presence of the Lord.

Acts 5:31
Him hath God exalted with his right hand to be a Prince and a Saviour, for to give repentance to Israel, and forgiveness of sins.

Acts 11:18
When they heard these things, they held their peace, and glorified God, saying, Then hath God also to the Gentiles granted repentance unto life.

Acts 17:30
And the times of this ignorance God winked at; but now commandeth all men every where to repent:

Acts 20:21
Testifying both to the Jews, and also to the Greeks, repentance toward God, and faith toward our Lord Jesus Christ.

Acts 26:20
But shewed first unto them of Damascus, and at Jerusalem, and throughout all the coasts of Judaea, and then to the Gentiles, that they should repent and turn to God, and do works meet for repentance.

Romans 2:4
Or despisest thou the riches of his goodness and forbearance and longsuffering; not knowing that the goodness of God leadeth thee to repentance?

2 Corinthians 7:10
For godly sorrow worketh repentance to salvation not to be repented of: but the sorrow of the world worketh death.

2 Timothy 2:25
In meekness instructing those that oppose themselves; if God peradventure will give them repentance to the acknowledging of the truth;

Hebrews 6:1
Therefore leaving the principles of the doctrine of Christ, let us go on unto perfection; not laying again the foundation of repentance from dead works, and of faith toward God,

2 Peter 3:9
The Lord is not slack concerning his promise, as some men count slackness; but is longsuffering to us-ward, not willing that any should perish, but that all should come to repentance.

Revelation 3:19
As many as I love, I rebuke and chasten: be zealous therefore, and repent.

Revelation 9:20
And the rest of the men which were not killed by these plagues yet repented not of the works of their hands, that they should not worship devils, and idols of gold, and silver, and brass, and stone, and of wood: which neither can see, nor hear, nor walk:

Revelation 9:21
Neither repented they of their murders, nor of their sorceries, nor of their fornication, nor of their thefts.

Observations:
The message of the Gospel is a message of repentance from dead works (sins) and faith toward God.

Those who did not repent of their evil deeds were not saved.

Repentance is granted by God.

Repentance to life (eternal life) is offered in the Gospel to both Jews and Gentiles.

God commands mankind to repent.

Unrepentance at the preaching of the Gospel is rebuked and condemned by the Lord.

Mankind is accountable to God to repent.

Good fruit (action) accompanies true repentance.

Repentance and faith were preached by Christ Jesus and His apostles.

Chapter 4: The Hebrew Language

The Hebrew language most likely derived its name from Eber, a descendent of Shem. The Hebrew language is wholly different from Indo-European dialects. Semitic language reads from right to left and in book form from the end to the beginning. For a person whose native language is English, coming to the Hebrew language is a challenging experience. Yet it is the language that God chose to reveal himself through prophets of old. Its features and characteristics are wonderfully suited to the revelation of God to be preserved from the time of its inscription until the end of the age.

There are twenty-two letters in the Hebrew alphabet which can be dated as early as 900 B.C. The names of the letters resemble the objects they represent, similar to the hieroglyphics of the ancient Egyptian language. The alphabet contains four gutturals that are pronounced as a sound from the back of the throat. Written Hebrew did not contain vowel sounds, but rather consonants, until the Masoretic system was introduced in the 7th century A.D. by Jewish scholars. When compared to other Semitic languages such as Arabic or Syriac it is evident that the vowel system developed by the Masoretes is correct. Several striking features of the Hebrew language are apparent. The triliteral natures of its verbs, as with all Semitic tongues, contain a sequence of three consonants. The conjugation of verbs in Hebrew is also an interesting feature. By varying the vowels, doubling the middle letter, or by adding letters or symbols the conjugations may be found. Also unique is the ambiguity surrounding the tense, if one exists at all. Grammarians have noted that the idea of time such as past, present or future is not inherent in the form of a Hebrew verb. The Hebrew is more concerned with action than with time. The tense of a verb must be ascertained by context as the verb gives us more of the :mood” of the action than its tense. This is quit fitting for the Divine revelation which speaks of future action as though it is already accomplished. What Almighty God has decreed as future may assuredly be stated as completed.

The Indo-European languages are descriptive, logical, and sequential. To the Hebrew mind and language ideas and events are pregnant with emotions, ideals, and experience. The past may be spoken of as future because the author is reflecting on the past in the present idealizing of a future utopia. Concerning Ishmael, God declares to Abraham that He has blessed him and made him fruitful, as though already occurring, when it had not yet to come to pass. Past action may have in view the continuous action of the verb. And the future action may be conceived as already accomplished.

Hebrew nouns are given in either a masculine or feminine gender. It is not necessary that the noun be a person to carry the inflexion. Rather, it appears that whether objects of nature or other non-living things possess qualities that may be considered masculine or feminine carry the inflexion. Mountains, for example, connote strength and would be given in the masculine. Words for cites or towns would be rendered in the feminine perhaps because they were thought of as mothers or daughters of those who lived in them. This feature of the Hebrew language further illustrates the vivid mind of the Hebrew author. Hebrew is a wholly expressive language. Its letters, nouns, and verbs serve to illustrate the visible and invisible world.

The use of plural in Indo-European tongues serves to indicate number or amount, but the Hebrew seeks to convey fullness or immenseness. The tree of life mentioned in Genesis 2:9 gives the word ‘life’ in the plural. The meaning is not that the tree contained many lives, but rather that it is the fullness or completeness of life. Coupled with this vivid nature of the language is its surprising simplicity. Unlike the English language where compound sentences abound, the Hebrew rarely knows of more than two or three sentences that run together. In very simplistic and highly expressive words this language speaks to us. As a result, we find very few adjectives in Hebrew. Such descriptive terms exist in the nouns themselves and to add expressiveness the nouns are multiplied.

Turning to the styles of speech in the Hebrew we discover poetical parallelisms, anthropomorphisms, and anthropopathisms. Hebrew poetry is different from that way we think of poetry as being metrical. Its form consists of definable parallelisms which are capable of direct translations into almost any language. Synonymous Parallelisms abound in the OT Scriptures in Identical, Similar, or Inverted forms. An example of an Identical Parallelism is Proverbs 6:2 which reads, "Thou art snared with the words of thy mouth, thou art taken with the words of thy mouth." The two components of this parallelism are essentially identical to one another with only slightly different wording. Similar Parallelism can be found in Psalm 24:2, "For he hath founded it upon the seas, and established it upon the floods." Here the two phrases are essentially similar but not necessarily identical. Inverted Parallelisms change the order of the thoughts being expressed. We find Psalm 19:1 serves as an example, "The heavens declare the glory of God; and the firmament sheweth his handywork." In the first part of the verse the heavens declare the glory of God and in the second half the same idea is inverted putting the firmament first that shows His handiwork.

Antithetic Parallelism is another form of Hebrew poetry that contrasts two opposing thoughts. This is most commonly found in the Proverbs which often compare the righteous with the wicked. Proverbs 15:2 declares, "The tongue of the wise useth knowledge aright: but the mouth of fools poureth out foolishness." This is an example of a Simple Antithetic parallelism. Compound Antithetic parallelisms may also be found in Scripture as in Isaiah 1:3, "The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master's crib: but Israel doth not know, my people doth not consider." It is compound because the thesis is expressed by two or more sentences followed by the antithesis.

Synthetic Parallelisms are discovered more by form than by idea, thesis or antithesis. The subjects may not answer to each other, but according to Lowth's definition the form does, "…as noun answers to noun, verb to verb, member to member, negative to negative, interrogative to interrogative." Within Synthetic Parallelism we find both Correspondent and Cumulative forms. In the twenty-seventh Psalm verse one we read, "The LORD is my light and my salvation; whom shall I fear? the LORD is the strength of my life; of whom shall I be afraid?" The first part of this verse corresponds to the second although the different ideas are presented. Also within Synthetic Parallelism are passages where a series of sentences or phrases culminate to a final idea. In Psalm 1:1-2 we find an example of this Cumulative form where certain actions are described by several sentences culminating in a climax. There are also a variety of irregular forms also to be found in Hebrew poetry such as listing the lines or verses with each letter of the alphabet in order. These forms of poetry serve to exhibit that the Hebrew mind thought and wrote with great emotion, purpose, and pathos. The fact that the Hebrew Scriptures are divine revelation from God serves to illustrate the personal nature of God in contradistinction from the pagan concepts of deity.

It is important to note that the Hebrew Scriptures contain many anthropomorphisms and anthropopathisms. Anthropomorphism ascribes human characteristics to animals or non-living things while anthropopathism ascribes human emotions. Such stylistic language is used in Scripture to describe Almighty God. By not recognizing such linguistic features in the Hebrew language it is possible to come to a false understanding of God. In Exodus 15:8 God is extolled for parting the sea for the Jews by "...the blast of thy nostrils." This is an example of anthropomorphism. God did not literally exhale air through his nose, nor does God have a physical nose at all. Recognition of these styles of speech can keep the interpreter of Scripture from error and even blasphemy.

For more than a thousand years, from the time of Moses through Samuel, from David to Hezekiah, and from the end of the kingdom of Judah to shortly after the Babylonian exile, the Hebrew language has remained essentially unchanged. As the languages of the world pass through time such significant changes occur that render them altogether different dialects. Yet as we observe the Hebrew tongue through wars, apostasy, and captivity it has remained virtually unchanged and is now preserved in the Holy Scriptures of the Old Testament. It stands as a testimony to the invisible hand of Divine Providence. In all of its beauty, emotion, rhythm, and poetry, it still stands as a living oracle saying to the skeptical world, “They have Moses and the prophets; let them hear them.” Luke 16:29a

Chapter 3: Languages of the Bible

Unless our native language is Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek, possessing some understanding of the original languages of the Bible is necessary to biblical interpretation. This is not to imply that those who posses only a translation of the Holy Scriptures are left without the word of God. But it must not be thought that a translation may sufficiently replace the original tongue. In order to prepare ourselves for an investigation into the sacred tongues of the Bible, we must first orientate ourselves to the origin of language itself and understand how language has changed through the passage of time. Having knowledge of this will help us examine the languages particular to the biblical text.

How did language originate? Several humanistic and materialistic theories have been advanced by the most eminent philologists who rarely agree among themselves. The Bible posits that man is the creation of God and from this we can rightly infer that language was created in man. The theories given in favor of a human origin propose ideas that language sprung from man who was imitating the sounds of things heard or by expressions naturally erupting from sudden emotions or other stimuli. While such theories may account for the change or progression of words in history, they do not give a sufficient explanation for the origin of the complexities of language itself. After the creation of the man and woman in the first chapter of Genesis we find them with the in-tact ability to communicate with God using language.

While linguistics may not be able to explain the origin of language, the study of language and literature, or philology, has given the world much insight into the history and divisions of the world’s tongues. To the untrained it may seem that with so many dialects a common origin might be impossible to discern. Thankfully this is not the case. The languages common to mankind can be grouped into three main families. The Indo-European family would include German, Dutch, Swedish, Danish, Icelandic, Russian, Polish, Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Latin, Greek, Armenian, Persian, Zend, Pali, Prakrit, and other dialects of India. The languages of Northern and Central Europe and Asia can be classified as the Scythian or Turanian family. The dialects of the Laplanders, Finns, Hungarians and Turks would be included in this family.

The third family is the Semitic named so from Shem, one of the son’s of Noah. The languages included in this family are Chaldee, Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopian, Phoenician, and the cuneiform of the Assyrians and Babylonians. From these main families of languages we may trace the various dialects mentioned above. According to philological research, the changes from the parent family to its sub-families occurred as the result of conquest, migration, and changes in customs.

Biblical Hermeneutics. Chapter 2 Summary: The Bible and Other Sacred Books

It is said that a lifelong friend of Patrick Henry told the story of a neighbor who going to see Henry found him holding up a Bible and said, “This book is worth all the books that were ever printed.” Whether the statement can truly be attributed to Henry, its sentiment rings true. A simple perusal of the sacred literature of the most predominate religions of the ancient and modern world make plain the uniqueness of the Bible among bibles. It is in holding up the greater light of Scripture to the lesser lights of the writings of the Egyptians, Persians, Hindus, Chinese, Muslims, and others that it becomes clear that the Bible is truly the Book of books. The differences are so striking that a comparison alone may well persuade the honest inquirer of the Bible’s divine origin. Add to this the immense diversity while being in possession of perfect unity would seem to set the divine seal upon its pages.

The Zend-Avesta of the ancient Iranian Zoroastrian religion has suffered much through the passage of time. Zoroaster himself appears on the pages of history as little more than a mythological figure. The sacred records of the Assyrians in their cuneiform monuments have passed to us large amounts of literature, history, poetry, science and religion. These writings lightly touch on Accad, mentioned in Genesis 10:10, in reference to two races which settled on the plains of the Euphrates and Tigris. The Chaldean creation account is of interest to Bible students as it references a seventh day of rest, as well as the Deluge and the Tower of Babel. Yet a careful study of these cuneiform writings betrays legend and tradition in contradistinction to the clear narratives found in the Bible. We find similar observations in what can be drawn from the Hindu Vedas, the Buddhist canon, or the sacred books of the Chinese.

While each of the sacred books of the nations should be studied in their entirety to gain a full comprehension of their respective worldview and philosophy, the Old and New Testaments held up to them must stands in a class of its own as entirely unique. Unlike the sacred texts of the nations that have scarcely reached beyond the people from which they sprung and some of which lay dormant fit mostly for the scholars interest, the Bible stands as the timeless Book for the nations not returning void to the One who sent it into the world to accomplish all His will.

Wisdom from a mom of six (and one on the way)

My wife may get mad at me for this, but I happened along some things she wrote about raising our kids. I thought it was absolutely wonderful. I pray she keeps writing!

Some things I’ve learned over the years having six kids.

Professionals don’t know everything
The advice they gave me 12 years ago they don’t give now. Why? Because it’s a different person/ or group with different opinions and priorities. So take their advice as good suggestions that may or may not work. You and your baby are unique and so are your needs. What works for your neighbor might be the worst suggestion for you.

Be willing to learn and grow with your baby
Each baby is born with their own personality and from day one you and your baby are getting to know and love each other. This takes time. Babies love Mom and Dad and want to feel close and warm in their arms. Let them indulge when you can. This time is precious and passes quickly.

My little one is five months old and already she wants to be playing and mobile, not snuggled as much as before. Being a parent is a learning time with many changes. Every time you think you have it down their needs change with their age and so you will need to learn to meet their new needs.

Babies are not robots
Your baby doesn’t know what the doctor said about how much to sleep and eat. They have their own appetite and need for sleep. One baby may love to sleep while another doesn’t need as much. So be flexible with them. Allow them to discover their world as you learn about them. When I’ve tried to get a baby to bend to my schedule and what I want, there has only been stress and frustration.

Babies change so don’t worry too much about how the times they are sleeping doesn’t work for when you wanted to clean house or answer emails. Their needs will change and the time that they want to play and sleep will be different. The older they get the easier it is to get some kind of schedule so that you can structure your day. When I am not happy with how my days are going I remind myself that this time will pass quickly and my sweet baby will grow and change.

You are teaching your baby good or bad habits
Every day you are training your little one. If you rock baby to sleep that is what they will grow a to expect, so if your day changes, and you need baby to lie down and sleep alone, it will take time to learn this new way of doing things.

The works of our Lord from the Gospel John

Written by my son, 10 years old..

The book of John is filled with miracles that Lord Jesus Christ did. Although I can’t tell you all of his works, no man could write such a large tale for it is written in John 21:25, and so there are also many other thing that Jesus did, the which, if they should be written everyone, even the world can’t contain the books that should be written. Amen. So let me tell you of some the great works our Almighty God.

One time Jesus went to a wedding but the church was out of wine so Mary told the servants to do whatever Jesus asked and so Jesus saw some water pots and told the servants to fill them with water and give it to the wedding governor, but when the governor tasted the water it was made of wine.

Another day there was a man lying next to a pool of water who couldn’t walk, and was waiting for it to move, for it was said, that an angel would come down from heaven and stir it, and whoever was first in the water would be healed from any sickness. But instead of an angel stirring up water, Jesus came along and saw the man who couldn’t walk and immediately He knew what was the problem and said "take up thy bed and walk", and immediately he picked up his bed and walked.

One time Jesus even feed 5,000 people with 5 loafs of bread and 2 small fishes. In fact Jesus was so merciful that He suffered the wrath of the Romans laid his life down and was crucified for all sinners. Jesus was able to do all this because of the will of God, because he was the Lamb of God the son of the almighty god, because he was, and still is God.

Book Summary Report: An Introduction to Theological Research.

An Introduction To Theological Research: A Guide for College and Seminary Students by Cyril J. Barber and Robert M. Krauss

The book, An Introduction to Theological Research, begins by rhetorically asking the reader if there exists a need for a book that teaches a researcher how to do research. The simple answer to this question is yes. The explosion of information in our era and the accessibility of much of this information via the internet have created the need for guidance. The academic researcher and the earnest Christian seeking to grow in their theological knowledge may indeed navigate through this sea of information safely and successfully. The general aim of the book is to help students do better quality research with a greater amount of personal fulfillment. These objectives have the goals of reducing the time a student might normally spend looking for information, finding information that will significantly improve the quality of the student’s research, and equipping the student to be able to do research independent of a guide. These goals may be achieved by beginning first with general reference works and then moving on to specific resources that increase the student’s knowledge in a particular area.

General reference works are treated in three parts in the book and include encyclopedias of religion and the Bible, Bible dictionaries, atlases and concordances, biblical archeological reference works, and theological reference works. Also included in general reference works are resources that cover areas such as education, history and philosophy, missions, philosophy, ethics, sociology and psychology. By beginning with general reference works the book contends that a student will be able to “work smarter, not just harder” thus enhancing both their enjoyment of research and, for the academic, their grades.

To the average person, the word ‘encyclopedia’ conjures up the multi-volume publications of Encyclopedia Britannica or Encyclopedia Americana. For the Bible student and theological researcher, these resources will not be sufficient. Encyclopedias can enrich a student’s study to give a broad range of a particular topic or discover who the major contributors are, both past and present, and who contributed to the body of knowledge. Not every encyclopedia will represent a high view of Scripture. It is important then for the student to critically examine each work as to who the editor is, why the work was written, and the scope of the work. While in the fields of science, theories and even axioms change, God’s truth is timeless and therefore older works should not be ignored.

In the category of religion one has to tread carefully to mine good information from them. Of note among several mentioned in the book is the Cylopedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature edited by James M’Clintock and James Strong. The articles in this encyclopedia are long and cover all of Christianity and many non-Christian religions. It is useful both topically and biographically. Topics such as Pelagianism and scholasticism are covered, and biographies of Calvin and Erasmus are examples of what may be found within its volumes. This set was updated with two additional volumes from the original ten running about 1000 pages each and are included in the 1968-1970 reprint.

While the aforementioned encyclopedia falls under the category of religion, there are encyclopedias and dictionaries that narrow our focus to biblical studies. Of note among them is New Unger’s Bible Dictionary. Its value lies in its currency, consistency, and archeological accuracy. This one-volume work is decidedly conservative no doubt due to Unger who was a professor of Dallas Theological Seminary for 19 years and a renowned biblical archeologist. It is important for the student of the Bible to think critically regardless of the encyclopedia or dictionary that is taken in hand for research. We should determine the theological perspective of each writer, whether the work was written from a biblical, theological, historical, or philosophical perspective and the sources the writers drew from for their information.

Also under the category of general reference works are theology and biblical archeology. Biblical archeology adds interest, validity, and accuracy to what is taught in the Bible. Theological reference works can be divided into two categories: biblical theology and systematic theology. Biblical theology aims at advancing the understanding of redemptive history as it progresses through time. It is exegetical and historical in nature. A narrower application of biblical theology is the study of a particular person in the Bible and derives a “theology” of that individual’s view. The reader may be familiar with the phrases “Pauline Theology” or “Johannine Theology” which are examples of biblical theology. Systematic theology is concerned with the history of ideas. Systematic theology approaches the Bible thematically and tends toward a more philosophical approach. The roots of such an approach are found in the ancient civilizations of the word. Caution must be exercised in Systematic Theology by remembering that the discipline of theology in Christianity is primarily the work of exegesis. Nevertheless, examining theological themes such as Christology or the Godhead, and treating each theme exhaustively, is of great value in theological research.

Of note among the nine works cited in the book touching biblical theology is The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology edited by C. Brown. Of particular interest to etymological considerations in this four-volume set is tracing the meaning of a word from the classical period through its usage in the Septuagint (LXX) and then addressing the occurrences in the New Testament. Also worth mentioning is the Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament edited by R.L. Harris, G.L. Archer and B.K. Waltke. The student is able to examine key words with respect to their etymology, cognate usage, and meaning. It is designed for the busy pastor or earnest Christian that has neither the time nor the background for a detailed technical study.

Reference works in the area of Systematic Theology should be evaluated as to whether or not the articles demonstrate knowledge of biblical languages. Works that contain articles from this approach will tend to hold a systematic theology that comes from the text of Scripture rather than reading into the text a preconceived notion. Worth considering is The Expository Dictionary of Bible Words by Lawrence O. Richards. Both Old and New Testaments are thoroughly covered. Words are explained in light of their etymology and practical insights are given to aid the spiritual growth of the believer. The reader should note that the 1985 edition has been updated by Zondervan entitled The New International Encyclopedia of Bible Words in 1999 and this printing is based on the NIV and NASB while the 1985 edition mentioned in the book addresses the Authorized (King James) Version.

The final part of the book covering general reference works deals with the integration of scientific disciplines outside the realm of biblical and theological research. There are eight subjects mentioned in the book: education, history, biography, missions, philosophy, ethics, sociology, and psychology. It is important to note that Scripture should be relied upon to keep the researcher on track in secular areas. For example, it may fall to a student of the Bible to develop an educational program for their church. Knowledge of the history, theory, processes and practices in education may prove helpful. Two works stand out for the biblical researcher. The first is The Encyclopedia of Education edited by L.C. Deighton. This encyclopedia covers public and private approaches to education to stress both the mechanics of learning and what ought to be done. The second is Town’s Sunday School Encyclopedia edited by E.L. Towns. It is 639 pages long and covers recent trends in Sunday school education, effective teaching methods, and proven methods and strategies for various groups.

Often lacking in our diet of biblical knowledge is the integration of history and biography. Having knowledge of certain personalities and events in history can bring a fresh vitality to our studies. With regard to biblical history and personalities in church history two works stand out. The first is A Dictionary of Christian Biography, Literature, Sects, and Doctrines edited by William Smith and Henry Wace in four volumes. An abridgment to this in one volume is available entitled, A Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature to the End of the Sixth Century edited by H. Wace and W.C. Piercy. These works cover from the times of the Apostles to the age of Charlemagne. They cover 19th century theologians and historians as well as ancient church leaders such as Athanasius and Augustine. Through these two works the earnest Christian may also trace the history of apologetics or find doctrinal essays on subjects like the Antichrist or baptism. The Dictionary of American Biography is another resource mentioned in the book that proves its value by containing 14,000 articles of deceased men and women that impacted American culture.

It is the mission of the church to preach the Gospel to all people and make disciples of all the nations. Editors S. Neill, G.H. Anderson and J. Goodwin contributed A Concise Dictionary of the Christian World Mission covering the history of missions from 1492 to present. While this work is dated (“present” is as of 1971) over 200 missiologists contributed to the work from all over the world. The leading resource for Protestant missions is the Mission Handbook 1998-2000 and serves as a more updated resource.

The disciplines of philosophy and ethics are closely related to theological study. The work of a theologian or student of the Bible is mainly the work of an exegete. Philosophy and ethics intersect our exegesis through logical analysis of the Scripture. The Encyclopedia of Philosophy edited by Paul Edwards spans the theories of philosophy in eight volumes covering both Eastern and Western thought including ancient and modern authors. The Encyclopedia of Biblical and Christian Ethics, edited by R. K. Harrison may be useful in demonstrating how ethics is integrated into theology during an era of moral equivocation. The modern era has given rise to the disciplines of sociology and psychology and has emphasized man’s felt needs. The International Encyclopedia of Psychiatry, Psychology, Psycho-Analysis, and Neurology, edited by B. B. Wolman contains articles from over 1,500 authors on the subjects of adolescence, death, depression, emotions, and leadership to name a few. It is clearly a secular encyclopedia but may offer insight to the student and pastor. Of interest for the student of the Bible is Roland de Vaux’s Ancient Israel: Its Life and Institutions, translated by J. McHugh and Israel: Its Life and Culture by Johannes Pedersen. These works deal with the sociological aspects of the people of the Bible. The first four chapters of the book dealt with general reference works. The remaining eleven chapters address specialized reference works.

After gleaning a general overview and scope of a subject the student is then ready to gather additional data through specialized reference works. Through specialized reference works the student will be able to refine a topic through particular Bible study tools. Once this is accomplished, the student will have laid the groundwork for a better understanding of journal articles, bibliographies, and unpublished materials. There are six main Bible study tools helpful for refining a topic: Bible atlases, concordances, Bible commentaries, lexicons, word studies, and online searching.

A Bible atlas will pave the way for the Bible student to locate the places significant to people and events mentioned in Scripture. The Moody Atlas of the Bible by Barry J. Beitzel covers both the Old and New Testaments with colorful maps. Included in this atlas are discussions regarding the history of biblical mapmaking and historical geography. Bible commentaries are very numerous. When one begins to consider what is available it becomes a daunting task to decide which commentary to invest in. Of the thirteen commentary sets mentioned in the book The New International Commentary on the New Testament and its counterpart The New International Commentary on the Old Testament stand out as representative of current conservative scholarship.

Concordances are an indispensable tool for the Bible student. While many use a concordance mainly to find a verse in the Bible, they are useful to discover the meaning of a word, follow a biblical writer’s theology, develop a biblical theology from the Scripture, trace the progression of revelation from the Old to the New Testament, and much more. A careful student of the Scripture will want to avoid abridged concordances which can leave out hundreds of words. It is also advised that one carefully examine a concordance prior to purchase by the reading the preface. Sometimes those called “exhaustive” which would imply coverage of all words is not the case. Two concordances mentioned in the book of note are the Analytical
Concordance to the Bible by Robert Young and James Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible. Young’s concordance is based on the AV providing a reference to each passage of Scripture in which a word appears. It shows the form of the Greek and Hebrew word underlying the translation and includes a lexicon at the end. Strong’s concordance is also based on the AV and has been recently updated under the title New Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance. It differs from Young’s by providing a Hebrew and Chaldee Dictionary with a corresponding number for every word of the Bible. The New Strong’s Expanded Exhaustive Concordance added Vine’s Complete Expository Dictionary of Old and New Testament Words and proves to be of great use to everyone.

Lexicons are important to the student of the Bible because they provide
etymological information and short summaries of the vocabulary of a language. Hebrew and Greek lexicons may take some time to get used to but with persistent use they will yield their benefit. Wilhelm Gesenius’ Hebraisched-deutches Handworterbuch uber die Schriften des Alten Testaments published in two volumes covers the Hebrew language and has stood the test of time. The Greek of the NT which concerns the Bible student is from the Hellenistic period. Bauer’s Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament contains a thorough examining of Greek literature touching the NT words still in use at the time. The proper use of concordances and lexicons build the foundation for what most earnest Christians are eager to do: word studies.

By using the language tools of a concordance and lexicon we can begin word studies which trace the origin and history of a word (etymology), the usage of the word in order to ascertain its meaning, and then verify our work by comparing it to exegetical works. This procedure is the same for both Old and New Testaments. One must not think that doing word studies is exegesis, yet it is fundamentally important for the right interpretation of a text. Liskowsky may be consulted with Gesenius’ work for tracing both the etymology and usage of the Hebrew through his Konkordanz zum hebraischen Alten Testament. Verification can be sought from the Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament, edited by R.L. Harris, G.L. Archer and B.K. Waltke. For tracing the etymology of a word in the NT, A Greek Grammar of the New Testament by F. Blass and A. Debrunner should prove useful and Moulton and Geden’s Concordance to the Greek Testament for tracing the usage of a word. Kittel’s Theological Dictionary of the New Testament may be consulted for verification noting that the “theological” aspect is from liberal presuppositions.

The use of online searching aid students to refine their topics and move from the general to the specific more efficiently. It is important to keep in mind when doing theological research that the Library of Congress Subject Headings may not always match a theological topic. The book examples the subject “Christology” which is common in theological study but is found under the subject heading “Jesus Christ” in the Library of Congress Subject Headings so an online search for “Christology” would not have yielded any results when in fact much is available on the subject under the approved heading. Online searching enables the student to find books, dissertations, and articles. Books may be found through Worldcat which allows a search of more than 31,000 libraries simultaneously. The ProQuest Religion database gives access to thousands of journal articles in full text form and ATLA Religion Database can be used to find dissertations. There are valuable resources on the internet through using common search engines and websites that do provide quality information. Bible software can also be a useful tool in the hands of a researcher, such as the Logos Library System, that offer a multitude of books, articles, lexicons, concordances, and dictionaries that may be searched simultaneously.

Indexes, abstracts, bibliographies, and unpublished works further aid the researcher to move from the general to the specific. Having a working knowledge of these tools can greatly reduce the time a student may spend in their research allowing them to spend less time trying to find resources and more time using them. Specialized indexes alphabetize subjects and then list journal articles or essays that relate to the subject. Abstracts follow a similar format, but include a summary of the referenced journal article or essay. The Religion Index One: Periodicals and Religion Index Two: Multi-Author Works may be accessed via the internet through FirstSearch, SilverPlatter, Ovid and EBSCO. The Religious and Theological Abstracts provide for searching under four divisions: Biblical, Theological, Historical, and Practical. Related disciplines such as administration, counseling, education, history, marriage and family, philosophy and the humanities may be searched through similar indexes and abstracts.

Searching bibliographies should not be overlooked. Indexes and abstracts limit the material to be found to recent history while searching bibliographic indexes provide for finding information that dates beyond the scope of online searching. Charles Haddon Spurgeon’s Commenting and Commentaries, for example, contains 1437 mini-reviews of commentaries and books reviewed by Spurgeon. Special bibliographies covering the Bible, Church History, Missions, and Pastoral theology should not be overlooked by the researcher. Finally, unpublished materials should not go unchecked when conducting theological research. Unpublished materials include papers read at theological society meetings or other private circulations that present the scholarly works of others. Such research may have a bearing on the topic under consideration.

The book concludes with a recap of their process to aid students to conduct better quality and more fulfilling research under their theme: from the general to the specific. The process followed involves beginning with general reference works and then narrowing one’s topic through books, periodical articles, bibliographic sources, and unpublished materials. And this, they claim, will put the student one track so that “…there is nothing you should not be able to find.”