Chapter 6: The Greek Language

The Greek people may be biblically traced to Javan, the son of Japheth. Their language heralds from the eastern parts of India to the western shores of Europe. We find some of the greatest works of philosophy, history, architecture, mathematical science, and sculpture given to the world from this people and in their tongue. The language has changed over time like so many languages of the world through migration and military conquest. The common form, called Hellenistic or Macedonian, blended the previous forms to become the common tongue used in the Christian era.



Athens, Antioch, and Alexandria became the centers for education and literacy. The famous Alexandrian Library founded by Ptolemy Soter is still known throughout the world. The city of Alexandria contained a large number of Jews likely due to the relaxed political climate at the time. The Jews adopted the Greek language and soon came to be called Hellenists. It is common to call the Greek of the NT Hellenistic Greek for this reason. This influence of the Jews may have brought into the language some Hebraisms giving to the NT unique qualities not known before. The NT manuscripts, the Septuagint, and the apocryphal books are all given in Hellenistic Greek. The writings of Philo, Josephus, and the Apostolic Fathers also serve as examples of this form of Greek and are useful in learning its peculiarities.

The characteristics of Hellenistic Greek have been arranged into eight categories by Planck. He notes that biblical Greek bears the peculiarity of containing foreign words such as Aramaic and Latin. It is also noted that the New Testament writers did not follow a standard writing system. They each had their own manner of spelling words for example. Some of these differences may be attributed to a copyist and not necessarily the author. Compared to other Greek forms, the NT writers used peculiar flexion of nouns and verbs. Moreover, another peculiarity of the NT writers is nouns given in a non-uniform manner. Nouns are sometimes given in the masculine and neuter forms whereas in the Septuagint they would be given consistently and uniformly.

There is also to be found in the NT Greek text nouns that are given entirely new forms or are new words themselves. An addition, new meaning and significance was given to known Greek words. Careful and patient study must be given in order to trace any changes in such meanings. An example is the word euagglion. In classical times the word carried the meaning of the reward for a good message. Later, it came to be used of sacrifice for a good message, and then still later came to mean the good message, or news, itself. Therefore, the meaning in the NT is the good news, or Gospel, of Jesus Christ.

It is apparent that Hellenistic Greek adopted some Hebraisms. Perfect Hebraisms are seen in words, phrases, and contractions unique to Hebrew or Aramean appear to be transferred directly into the Greek language. Imperfect Hebraisms have some measure of probability of being introduced from Hebrew. Words such as hosanna are direct transfers from Aramaic to Greek, and the word translated ‘bowels’ in the AV draws the concept from the Hebrew. Certain expressions and grammatical constructions can also be traced as particularly Hebrew. This can be seen by noticing the verb following the preposition where in Classical Greek verbs stand alone in accusative or dative cases without a preposition.

Such Hebraist constructions and styles would be natural to the NT writers who wrote under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit in expounding the Hebrew Scriptures which they were well acquainted with. The same Spirit that moved the prophets of old then breathed-out through the holy Apostles as they made known the power and coming of the Lord Jesus Christ by the Hebrew Scripture in the New Testament. When the Lord dealt primarily in the world through the Hebrew people He spoke to them in their language. But when the fullness of times had come when Jehovah when the middle wall of separation be torn down between Jew and Gentile, He set His revelation in the language of the Greeks.

Chapter 5: The Chaldee Language

The Chaldee language, sometimes called Aramaic or Syriac, is found in a few portions of the OT Scriptures. We find this dialect in Jeremiah, Daniel, and Ezra. The Chaldean tongue was in common use during the time of the Babylonian captivity of the Jews. It was during this time of captivity Hebrew gradually ceased to be spoken as the common tongue and the Jews came to adopt the Chaldean as their own. This language would have been learned by such men as Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah who were chosen by Nebuchadnezzar to be taught “the tongue of the Chaldeans.” Daniel 1:4.

It may be inquired as to why God chose to have certain portions of the OT Scriptures put into the language of the Babylonians. The answer begins to be apparent as we look at the instances of Aramaic in the Bible. In Daniel 2:4 we read, “Then spake the Chaldeans to the king in Syriack, O King, live forever…” The Aramaic begins at the words “O King, live forever..” and follows through the discourse. Daniel stood as a prophet in the courts of the king of Babylon to prophesy both of his own people and that of the Babylonians and of many world empires in the future. It was fitting that God chose to put this prophecy into the language of the people with whom it had to do. Furthermore, the very fact that we find this ancient tongue in the midst of the Hebrew Scriptures serves as monumental evidence of the validity of the facts being presented in the text.

Ezra is also a book of the Bible where we find the Aramaic language. Ezra lived about one hundred years after Daniel and was an exile during the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus in 457 B. C. Ezra was a highly educated priest and scribe and it is believed that he is responsible for the collection of the sacred texts of the Hebrews into a canon essentially the same as possessed today in the Old Testament. In Nehemiah 8:1 it is Ezra that brought the “…the book of the Law of Moses” and read it to the people that they might understand it. In Ezra 4:7 we read that a letter written by Bishlam, Mithredath, Tabeel, and their companions “…was written in the Syrian tongue, and interpreted in the Syrian tongue.” Ezra gives 4:8 through 6:18 in Aramaic and like Daniel, serves as a testament to the authenticity of the life of Ezra and God’s wisdom in speaking to a nation in their language.

In many ways the language is similar to Hebrew being a Semitic language but as in all languages it contains its own peculiarities. Babylonian-Aramaic became the language of the Hebrews while they were in exile and remained their common tongue through the New Testament period. The use of Aramaic in the New Testament is evident by many words such as Raca, Gogotha, Rabboni, Abba, and Maranatha to name a few. As the fulfillment of the Old Covenant in Christ steadfastly approached we witness the Providence of God transitioning His people to the language in which He chose to speak to the world. From the beginning God spoke to the nation of Israel by the prophets in their Hebrew tongue. As prophecy began to speak to the nations around them the language of the sacred text spoke to them that they may understand. And as the fullness of times approached for the Gospel to be preached to all nations beginning in Jerusalem, so too did the language of Scripture change in order to speak to the world in the Greek language.

What Does the Bible Teach About Repentance?

The verb metanoeo is translated "repent" in the KJV 34 times. The word 'repentance" is the Greek metanoia is found 24 times in the KJV.

Matthew 3:2
And saying, Repent ye: for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.

Matthew 4:17
From that time Jesus began to preach, and to say, Repent: for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.

Matthew 9:13
But go ye and learn what that meaneth, I will have mercy, and not sacrifice: for I am not come to call the righteous, but sinners to repentance.

Matthew 11:20
Then began he to upbraid the cities wherein most of his mighty works were done, because they repented not:

Mark 1:15
And saying, The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God is at hand: repent ye, and believe the gospel.

Mark 6:12
And they went out, and preached that men should repent.

Luke 3:8
Bring forth therefore fruits worthy of repentance, and begin not to say within yourselves, We have Abraham to our father: for I say unto you, That God is able of these stones to raise up children unto Abraham.

Luke 13:3
I tell you, Nay: but, except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish.

Luke 15:7
I say unto you, that likewise joy shall be in heaven over one sinner that repenteth, more than over ninety and nine just persons, which need no repentance.

Luke 24:47
And that repentance and remission of sins should be preached in his name among all nations, beginning at Jerusalem.

Acts 2:38
Then Peter said unto them, Repent, and be baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus Christ for the remission of sins, and ye shall receive the gift of the Holy Ghost.

Acts 3:19
Repent ye therefore, and be converted, that your sins may be blotted out, when the times of refreshing shall come from the presence of the Lord.

Acts 5:31
Him hath God exalted with his right hand to be a Prince and a Saviour, for to give repentance to Israel, and forgiveness of sins.

Acts 11:18
When they heard these things, they held their peace, and glorified God, saying, Then hath God also to the Gentiles granted repentance unto life.

Acts 17:30
And the times of this ignorance God winked at; but now commandeth all men every where to repent:

Acts 20:21
Testifying both to the Jews, and also to the Greeks, repentance toward God, and faith toward our Lord Jesus Christ.

Acts 26:20
But shewed first unto them of Damascus, and at Jerusalem, and throughout all the coasts of Judaea, and then to the Gentiles, that they should repent and turn to God, and do works meet for repentance.

Romans 2:4
Or despisest thou the riches of his goodness and forbearance and longsuffering; not knowing that the goodness of God leadeth thee to repentance?

2 Corinthians 7:10
For godly sorrow worketh repentance to salvation not to be repented of: but the sorrow of the world worketh death.

2 Timothy 2:25
In meekness instructing those that oppose themselves; if God peradventure will give them repentance to the acknowledging of the truth;

Hebrews 6:1
Therefore leaving the principles of the doctrine of Christ, let us go on unto perfection; not laying again the foundation of repentance from dead works, and of faith toward God,

2 Peter 3:9
The Lord is not slack concerning his promise, as some men count slackness; but is longsuffering to us-ward, not willing that any should perish, but that all should come to repentance.

Revelation 3:19
As many as I love, I rebuke and chasten: be zealous therefore, and repent.

Revelation 9:20
And the rest of the men which were not killed by these plagues yet repented not of the works of their hands, that they should not worship devils, and idols of gold, and silver, and brass, and stone, and of wood: which neither can see, nor hear, nor walk:

Revelation 9:21
Neither repented they of their murders, nor of their sorceries, nor of their fornication, nor of their thefts.

Observations:
The message of the Gospel is a message of repentance from dead works (sins) and faith toward God.

Those who did not repent of their evil deeds were not saved.

Repentance is granted by God.

Repentance to life (eternal life) is offered in the Gospel to both Jews and Gentiles.

God commands mankind to repent.

Unrepentance at the preaching of the Gospel is rebuked and condemned by the Lord.

Mankind is accountable to God to repent.

Good fruit (action) accompanies true repentance.

Repentance and faith were preached by Christ Jesus and His apostles.

Chapter 4: The Hebrew Language

The Hebrew language most likely derived its name from Eber, a descendent of Shem. The Hebrew language is wholly different from Indo-European dialects. Semitic language reads from right to left and in book form from the end to the beginning. For a person whose native language is English, coming to the Hebrew language is a challenging experience. Yet it is the language that God chose to reveal himself through prophets of old. Its features and characteristics are wonderfully suited to the revelation of God to be preserved from the time of its inscription until the end of the age.

There are twenty-two letters in the Hebrew alphabet which can be dated as early as 900 B.C. The names of the letters resemble the objects they represent, similar to the hieroglyphics of the ancient Egyptian language. The alphabet contains four gutturals that are pronounced as a sound from the back of the throat. Written Hebrew did not contain vowel sounds, but rather consonants, until the Masoretic system was introduced in the 7th century A.D. by Jewish scholars. When compared to other Semitic languages such as Arabic or Syriac it is evident that the vowel system developed by the Masoretes is correct. Several striking features of the Hebrew language are apparent. The triliteral natures of its verbs, as with all Semitic tongues, contain a sequence of three consonants. The conjugation of verbs in Hebrew is also an interesting feature. By varying the vowels, doubling the middle letter, or by adding letters or symbols the conjugations may be found. Also unique is the ambiguity surrounding the tense, if one exists at all. Grammarians have noted that the idea of time such as past, present or future is not inherent in the form of a Hebrew verb. The Hebrew is more concerned with action than with time. The tense of a verb must be ascertained by context as the verb gives us more of the :mood” of the action than its tense. This is quit fitting for the Divine revelation which speaks of future action as though it is already accomplished. What Almighty God has decreed as future may assuredly be stated as completed.

The Indo-European languages are descriptive, logical, and sequential. To the Hebrew mind and language ideas and events are pregnant with emotions, ideals, and experience. The past may be spoken of as future because the author is reflecting on the past in the present idealizing of a future utopia. Concerning Ishmael, God declares to Abraham that He has blessed him and made him fruitful, as though already occurring, when it had not yet to come to pass. Past action may have in view the continuous action of the verb. And the future action may be conceived as already accomplished.

Hebrew nouns are given in either a masculine or feminine gender. It is not necessary that the noun be a person to carry the inflexion. Rather, it appears that whether objects of nature or other non-living things possess qualities that may be considered masculine or feminine carry the inflexion. Mountains, for example, connote strength and would be given in the masculine. Words for cites or towns would be rendered in the feminine perhaps because they were thought of as mothers or daughters of those who lived in them. This feature of the Hebrew language further illustrates the vivid mind of the Hebrew author. Hebrew is a wholly expressive language. Its letters, nouns, and verbs serve to illustrate the visible and invisible world.

The use of plural in Indo-European tongues serves to indicate number or amount, but the Hebrew seeks to convey fullness or immenseness. The tree of life mentioned in Genesis 2:9 gives the word ‘life’ in the plural. The meaning is not that the tree contained many lives, but rather that it is the fullness or completeness of life. Coupled with this vivid nature of the language is its surprising simplicity. Unlike the English language where compound sentences abound, the Hebrew rarely knows of more than two or three sentences that run together. In very simplistic and highly expressive words this language speaks to us. As a result, we find very few adjectives in Hebrew. Such descriptive terms exist in the nouns themselves and to add expressiveness the nouns are multiplied.

Turning to the styles of speech in the Hebrew we discover poetical parallelisms, anthropomorphisms, and anthropopathisms. Hebrew poetry is different from that way we think of poetry as being metrical. Its form consists of definable parallelisms which are capable of direct translations into almost any language. Synonymous Parallelisms abound in the OT Scriptures in Identical, Similar, or Inverted forms. An example of an Identical Parallelism is Proverbs 6:2 which reads, "Thou art snared with the words of thy mouth, thou art taken with the words of thy mouth." The two components of this parallelism are essentially identical to one another with only slightly different wording. Similar Parallelism can be found in Psalm 24:2, "For he hath founded it upon the seas, and established it upon the floods." Here the two phrases are essentially similar but not necessarily identical. Inverted Parallelisms change the order of the thoughts being expressed. We find Psalm 19:1 serves as an example, "The heavens declare the glory of God; and the firmament sheweth his handywork." In the first part of the verse the heavens declare the glory of God and in the second half the same idea is inverted putting the firmament first that shows His handiwork.

Antithetic Parallelism is another form of Hebrew poetry that contrasts two opposing thoughts. This is most commonly found in the Proverbs which often compare the righteous with the wicked. Proverbs 15:2 declares, "The tongue of the wise useth knowledge aright: but the mouth of fools poureth out foolishness." This is an example of a Simple Antithetic parallelism. Compound Antithetic parallelisms may also be found in Scripture as in Isaiah 1:3, "The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master's crib: but Israel doth not know, my people doth not consider." It is compound because the thesis is expressed by two or more sentences followed by the antithesis.

Synthetic Parallelisms are discovered more by form than by idea, thesis or antithesis. The subjects may not answer to each other, but according to Lowth's definition the form does, "…as noun answers to noun, verb to verb, member to member, negative to negative, interrogative to interrogative." Within Synthetic Parallelism we find both Correspondent and Cumulative forms. In the twenty-seventh Psalm verse one we read, "The LORD is my light and my salvation; whom shall I fear? the LORD is the strength of my life; of whom shall I be afraid?" The first part of this verse corresponds to the second although the different ideas are presented. Also within Synthetic Parallelism are passages where a series of sentences or phrases culminate to a final idea. In Psalm 1:1-2 we find an example of this Cumulative form where certain actions are described by several sentences culminating in a climax. There are also a variety of irregular forms also to be found in Hebrew poetry such as listing the lines or verses with each letter of the alphabet in order. These forms of poetry serve to exhibit that the Hebrew mind thought and wrote with great emotion, purpose, and pathos. The fact that the Hebrew Scriptures are divine revelation from God serves to illustrate the personal nature of God in contradistinction from the pagan concepts of deity.

It is important to note that the Hebrew Scriptures contain many anthropomorphisms and anthropopathisms. Anthropomorphism ascribes human characteristics to animals or non-living things while anthropopathism ascribes human emotions. Such stylistic language is used in Scripture to describe Almighty God. By not recognizing such linguistic features in the Hebrew language it is possible to come to a false understanding of God. In Exodus 15:8 God is extolled for parting the sea for the Jews by "...the blast of thy nostrils." This is an example of anthropomorphism. God did not literally exhale air through his nose, nor does God have a physical nose at all. Recognition of these styles of speech can keep the interpreter of Scripture from error and even blasphemy.

For more than a thousand years, from the time of Moses through Samuel, from David to Hezekiah, and from the end of the kingdom of Judah to shortly after the Babylonian exile, the Hebrew language has remained essentially unchanged. As the languages of the world pass through time such significant changes occur that render them altogether different dialects. Yet as we observe the Hebrew tongue through wars, apostasy, and captivity it has remained virtually unchanged and is now preserved in the Holy Scriptures of the Old Testament. It stands as a testimony to the invisible hand of Divine Providence. In all of its beauty, emotion, rhythm, and poetry, it still stands as a living oracle saying to the skeptical world, “They have Moses and the prophets; let them hear them.” Luke 16:29a

Chapter 3: Languages of the Bible

Unless our native language is Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek, possessing some understanding of the original languages of the Bible is necessary to biblical interpretation. This is not to imply that those who posses only a translation of the Holy Scriptures are left without the word of God. But it must not be thought that a translation may sufficiently replace the original tongue. In order to prepare ourselves for an investigation into the sacred tongues of the Bible, we must first orientate ourselves to the origin of language itself and understand how language has changed through the passage of time. Having knowledge of this will help us examine the languages particular to the biblical text.

How did language originate? Several humanistic and materialistic theories have been advanced by the most eminent philologists who rarely agree among themselves. The Bible posits that man is the creation of God and from this we can rightly infer that language was created in man. The theories given in favor of a human origin propose ideas that language sprung from man who was imitating the sounds of things heard or by expressions naturally erupting from sudden emotions or other stimuli. While such theories may account for the change or progression of words in history, they do not give a sufficient explanation for the origin of the complexities of language itself. After the creation of the man and woman in the first chapter of Genesis we find them with the in-tact ability to communicate with God using language.

While linguistics may not be able to explain the origin of language, the study of language and literature, or philology, has given the world much insight into the history and divisions of the world’s tongues. To the untrained it may seem that with so many dialects a common origin might be impossible to discern. Thankfully this is not the case. The languages common to mankind can be grouped into three main families. The Indo-European family would include German, Dutch, Swedish, Danish, Icelandic, Russian, Polish, Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Latin, Greek, Armenian, Persian, Zend, Pali, Prakrit, and other dialects of India. The languages of Northern and Central Europe and Asia can be classified as the Scythian or Turanian family. The dialects of the Laplanders, Finns, Hungarians and Turks would be included in this family.

The third family is the Semitic named so from Shem, one of the son’s of Noah. The languages included in this family are Chaldee, Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopian, Phoenician, and the cuneiform of the Assyrians and Babylonians. From these main families of languages we may trace the various dialects mentioned above. According to philological research, the changes from the parent family to its sub-families occurred as the result of conquest, migration, and changes in customs.

Biblical Hermeneutics. Chapter 2 Summary: The Bible and Other Sacred Books

It is said that a lifelong friend of Patrick Henry told the story of a neighbor who going to see Henry found him holding up a Bible and said, “This book is worth all the books that were ever printed.” Whether the statement can truly be attributed to Henry, its sentiment rings true. A simple perusal of the sacred literature of the most predominate religions of the ancient and modern world make plain the uniqueness of the Bible among bibles. It is in holding up the greater light of Scripture to the lesser lights of the writings of the Egyptians, Persians, Hindus, Chinese, Muslims, and others that it becomes clear that the Bible is truly the Book of books. The differences are so striking that a comparison alone may well persuade the honest inquirer of the Bible’s divine origin. Add to this the immense diversity while being in possession of perfect unity would seem to set the divine seal upon its pages.

The Zend-Avesta of the ancient Iranian Zoroastrian religion has suffered much through the passage of time. Zoroaster himself appears on the pages of history as little more than a mythological figure. The sacred records of the Assyrians in their cuneiform monuments have passed to us large amounts of literature, history, poetry, science and religion. These writings lightly touch on Accad, mentioned in Genesis 10:10, in reference to two races which settled on the plains of the Euphrates and Tigris. The Chaldean creation account is of interest to Bible students as it references a seventh day of rest, as well as the Deluge and the Tower of Babel. Yet a careful study of these cuneiform writings betrays legend and tradition in contradistinction to the clear narratives found in the Bible. We find similar observations in what can be drawn from the Hindu Vedas, the Buddhist canon, or the sacred books of the Chinese.

While each of the sacred books of the nations should be studied in their entirety to gain a full comprehension of their respective worldview and philosophy, the Old and New Testaments held up to them must stands in a class of its own as entirely unique. Unlike the sacred texts of the nations that have scarcely reached beyond the people from which they sprung and some of which lay dormant fit mostly for the scholars interest, the Bible stands as the timeless Book for the nations not returning void to the One who sent it into the world to accomplish all His will.

Wisdom from a mom of six (and one on the way)

My wife may get mad at me for this, but I happened along some things she wrote about raising our kids. I thought it was absolutely wonderful. I pray she keeps writing!

Some things I’ve learned over the years having six kids.

Professionals don’t know everything
The advice they gave me 12 years ago they don’t give now. Why? Because it’s a different person/ or group with different opinions and priorities. So take their advice as good suggestions that may or may not work. You and your baby are unique and so are your needs. What works for your neighbor might be the worst suggestion for you.

Be willing to learn and grow with your baby
Each baby is born with their own personality and from day one you and your baby are getting to know and love each other. This takes time. Babies love Mom and Dad and want to feel close and warm in their arms. Let them indulge when you can. This time is precious and passes quickly.

My little one is five months old and already she wants to be playing and mobile, not snuggled as much as before. Being a parent is a learning time with many changes. Every time you think you have it down their needs change with their age and so you will need to learn to meet their new needs.

Babies are not robots
Your baby doesn’t know what the doctor said about how much to sleep and eat. They have their own appetite and need for sleep. One baby may love to sleep while another doesn’t need as much. So be flexible with them. Allow them to discover their world as you learn about them. When I’ve tried to get a baby to bend to my schedule and what I want, there has only been stress and frustration.

Babies change so don’t worry too much about how the times they are sleeping doesn’t work for when you wanted to clean house or answer emails. Their needs will change and the time that they want to play and sleep will be different. The older they get the easier it is to get some kind of schedule so that you can structure your day. When I am not happy with how my days are going I remind myself that this time will pass quickly and my sweet baby will grow and change.

You are teaching your baby good or bad habits
Every day you are training your little one. If you rock baby to sleep that is what they will grow a to expect, so if your day changes, and you need baby to lie down and sleep alone, it will take time to learn this new way of doing things.